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2019 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

Sustainable Management of Urban Soils: The New Zealand Approach

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Abstract

This chapter considers the management of New Zealand’s soils and in particular the impact of urbanisation on high-value soils. The chapter first provides an overview of New Zealand’s geographic, climatic and demographic background and the historical impact of agricultural development, industry and human settlement. Early regulation to protect natural water and soil is then examined, along with more recent planning and environmental management measures. Significant environmental law and policy reforms since the mid-1980s are then described in detail and evaluated in terms of their contribution to sustainable soil management and the protection of high-quality soils in or adjacent to urban areas. The various roles and responsibilities of the three levels of government—central, regional and municipal—are examined, and the use of policy and planning instruments to achieve sustainable management of soils are discussed. In some cases, litigation has arisen between landowners and planning authorities about the appropriate location (or re-location) of the urban–rural boundary. Property owners often seek the right to develop their land by having it included within the urban zone or through the grant of an exemption from rural development restrictions. A representative group of recent cases that illustrate the factors and criteria that are applied by the courts in resolving such conflicts are discussed. The chapter concludes with an assessment of the effectiveness of New Zealand’s soil management regime and its possible application to other jurisdictions.

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Fußnoten
1
MfE & SNZ (2015), pp. 20–21. Almost 75% of New Zealand is covered by easily eroded sedimentary rock and soils, and the country has a relatively high annual rainfall of between 600 and 1500 mm, with in excess of 5000 mm in the mountain ranges: ibid, pp. 49–50. For a full description of the composition and state of New Zealand’s soils, see MfE (2007), ch 9 ‘Land’, Table 9.4, p. 231.
 
2
MfE & SNZ (2015), p. 105. Only 26% of natural forest cover remains, with a further 7.5% covered by planted production forest: ibid, pp. 79–80.
 
3
Exotic grassland (pasture) and horticulture now comprises almost 42% of New Zealand’s land area: MfE & SNZ (2015), pp. 79–80.
 
4
MfE & SNZ (2018), pp. 7–11; MfE & SNZ (2015), pp. 20–21; MfE (2007), ch 9 ‘Land’.
 
5
See MfE & SNZ (2018), pp. 75–78. For a concise summary of the problem of soil and coastal erosion in New Zealand, see Memon and Perkins (2000), pp. 148–149, and 152.
 
6
New Zealand Government, Te Ara, Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, ‘Soil Erosion and Conservation’, p. 1, at https://​teara.​govt.​nz/​en/​soil-erosion-and-conservation/​page-1. See also MfE (2007), ch 9 ‘Land’.
 
7
MfE & SNZ (2015), p. 82, states that in the North Island alone 840,000 ha is at risk of severe erosion, and that is 3.1% of New Zealand’s land area, and over 7% of the North Island.
 
8
MfE (2007), pp. 213–214.
 
9
MfE & SNZ (2018), pp. 49–50; MfE (2007), pp. 236, and 241–245.
 
10
MfE & SNZ (2018), p. 76.
 
11
MfE & SNZ (2018), pp. 79–82; MfE (2007), p. 228.
 
12
MfE & SNZ (2018), pp. 51–54, 79–82; MfE & SNZ (2015), pp. 63–67, and 77–78; and MfE (2007), pp. 237–239. See also Dearsley (2015), Bollen (2015) and Drummond (2006).
 
13
MfE & SNZ (2018), p. 80; MfE & SNZ (2015), p. 84; MfE (2007), p. 239.
 
14
MfE & SNZ (2018), pp. 67–69.
 
15
MfE (2007), p. 248.
 
16
Resource Management (National Environmental Standard for Assessing and Managing Contaminants in Soil to Protect Human Health) Regulations 2011 (NZ).
 
17
MfE & SNZ (2015), pp. 79–80.
 
18
MfE & SNZ (2015), p. 78.
 
19
MPI (2015), p. 4.
 
20
MfE & SNZ (2018), p. 58.
 
21
Approximately 86% of New Zealander’s live in urban areas, with 73% in urban areas having a population of over 30,000 people: MfE & SNZ (2018), pp. 7–11 and 57–59. See also MPI (2015), pp. 4–5, Rutledge et al. (2010) and Mackay et al. (2011) est pp. 69–70.
 
22
See also the Public Reserves Act 1881, Land Acts of 1877, 1885, 1924 and 1948, State Forests Acts of 1885, 1908, and Forests Act of 1921 and 1949.
 
23
Baumgart and Howitt (1979), p. 68.
 
24
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 (NZ), s 14.
 
25
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967, s 21. See Glenmark Homestead Ltd v North Canterbury Catchment Board [1978] 1 NZLR 407. See also Palmer (1984), pp. 856–893.
 
26
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967, s 4. See also Keam v NWSCA (1979) 7 NZTPA 11, and Palmer (1984), p. 867.
 
27
Such as the Town and Country Planning Acts of 1953 and 1977.
 
28
See Baumgart and Howitt (1979), pp. 68–70; Palmer (1984), pp. 830–845.
 
29
RMA, Schedule 6. See also s 354(1)(b) (Crown’s right to control use of water in its natural state retained).
 
30
See Salmon and Grinlinton (2018), at ch 2, para [2.10], ch 4 and ch 11, paras [11.1]-[11.2].
 
31
Bosselmann et al. (2013), ch 2.
 
32
See Palmer (2013), pp. 420–433. The Environment Act 1986, which established a Ministry for the Environment and a Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, was the first of a number of environmental legislative reforms.
 
33
Environment Act 1986 (NZ), Part 2, esp s 31 (Functions of Ministry).
 
34
Environment Act 1986 (NZ), Part 1, esp s 16 (Functions of Commissioner).
 
35
Conservation Act 1987, ss 5–6. The ‘conservation estate’ comprises approximately 30% of New Zealand’s total land area and includes reserves, parks, most of the coastline, and other publicly owned land.
 
36
RMA, s 2(1) and Local Government Act 2002, s 5(1) (definition of ‘territorial authorities’).
 
37
See Local Government Amendment Act 1989, and Palmer (2012) at ch 23 (History and Theory of Local Authorities), especially at [23.2], [23.4], [23.5] and Appendix 1.
 
38
‘Soil’ is included in the statutory definition of ‘natural and physical resources’ to which the core ‘sustainable management’ principle applies: RMA, s 2(1) (definitions). ‘Safeguarding the life-supporting capacity of … soil…’ is also specifically included as a fundamental requirement of ‘sustainable management’ in RMA, s 5(2)(a). See also ss 30(1)(c)(i) (Regional councils responsibility to ‘control … the use of land for the purpose of … soil conservation’; and s 31(1)(b) and (2) (Territorial authorities’ responsibilities to control the effects of the use and development of land, including subdivision of land).
 
39
Resource Management (Simplifying and Streamlining) Act 2009 (NZ).
 
40
Resource Legislation Amendment Act 2017 (NZ). Other amendments included those enacted in 2003, 2004, and 2005.
 
41
See Grinlinton (2009), pp. 65–67; von Dadelszen (2010), pp. 105–107.
 
42
See MfE (2018).
 
43
For critique of the Resource Management Amendment Act 2017, see Berry et al. (2017), pp. 9–16. See also Palmer (2016), Williams (2018) and Palmer (2018), Part B.
 
44
RMA, s 5(1).
 
45
New Zealand Rail Ltd v Marlborough District Council [1994] NZRMA 70 (HC) at 86; North Shore City Council v Auckland Regional Council [1997] NZRMA 59 (EnvC) at 93–94 (the Environment Court uses the words ‘overall broad judgment’ at 194).
 
46
Environmental Defence Society Inc v The New Zealand King Salmon Co Ltd [2014] NZSC 38, [2014] 1 NZLR 593, esp at para [132]. See also the analysis of this decision in Salmon and Grinlinton (2018), at para [4.3.1].
 
47
See generally Palmer (2008).
 
48
Article Two of the English version of the Treaty guarantees Maori ‘the full exclusive and undisturbed possession of their lands and estates forests fisheries and other properties’: for the full text of both versions, see DoJ (1989), pp. 4–6. Whether sovereignty in its fullest sense was, in fact, ceded to the Crown is the subject of continuing debate.
 
49
Environmental Defence Society Inc v The New Zealand King Salmon Co Ltd [2014] NZSC 38, [2014] 1 NZLR 593 at [25]–[30].
 
50
For example, New Zealand Rail Ltd v Marlborough District Council [1994] NZRMA 70 (construction of an export wharf of greater national importance than protection of the coastal environment in that location).
 
51
Environmental Defence Society Inc v The New Zealand King Salmon Co Ltd [2014] NZSC 38, [2014] 1 NZLR 593.
 
52
For a recent description of this vertically and horizontally integrated framework see: Grinlinton (2016a), pp. 433–434.
 
53
RMA, ss s 67(2), (3), 75(3).
 
54
RMA, ss 61(2)(b), 66(2)(d) and 67(4) (regional councils); and ss 74(2) and 75(4) (territorial authorities). See also RMA, Schedule 1, cll 3-3C (consultation) and Part 4 (collaborative planning process).
 
55
RMA, s 30(1)(c)(i).
 
56
RMA, s 31(1)(b) and (2).
 
57
RMA, s 30(1)(ba) (Regional councils), and s 31(1)(aa) (Territorial authorities).
 
58
NPS-UDC (2016), p. 13 (PC 1).
 
59
‘Resource consents’ include land use consents, subdivision consents, water permits, coastal permits and discharge permits under the RMA: ss 2, 87.
 
60
RMA, ss 95, and 95A-95G. Less than 5% of resource consent applications are notified, so ‘open participation’ is to some extent a misnomer.
 
61
RMA, ss 299, 301.
 
62
See RMA, ss 102, 103 & 269, which provide respectively for joint hearings by two or more consent authorities, combined hearings of two or more applications, and hearing matters together in the Environment Court.
 
63
Failure to comply with those orders constitutes an offence under the Act leading to the possibility of imprisonment or heavy fines. The RMA provides very strong enforcement mechanisms, including imprisonment for up to 2 years, fines up to $NZ300,000 for individuals and $600,000 for corporations, strict liability and vicarious corporate liability. Examples of prosecutions that have resulted imprisonment include Franklin District Council v McCollum (District Court, CRN 3057005960, 14 February 1994), R v Borrett [2004] NZRMA 248 (CA), and R v Conway [2005] NZRMA 274 (CA).
 
64
For example, RMA, s 23(1) provides that ‘Compliance with this Act does not remove the need to comply with all other applicable Acts, regulations, bylaws, and rules of law’.
 
65
For example, in Varnier v Vector Energy Ltd [2004] NZRMA 193 at [28], the Court confirmed that acquisition of a resource consent under the RMA ‘… is not intended to remove the common law right to claim in nuisance or negligence in relation to effects arising from the implementation of the consent …’.
 
66
Smith Hon (2016).
 
67
Households renting rather than owning their homes in New Zealand increased from around 25% in 1991 to 33% in 2015 nationally, with even higher levels in Auckland: SNZ (2015a, b), pp. 5 and 19.
 
68
See NZPC (2012), pp. 1–9 for a useful overview of the causes.
 
69
NPS-UDC (2016), p. 9. For a detailed analysis of the NPS-UDC, see Grinlinton (2016b), p. 205.
 
70
NPS-UDC (2016), pp. 10 (Objectives), and 11–16 (Policies).
 
71
NPS-UDC (2016), p. 13 (PC 1).
 
72
RMA ss 30(1)(ba) (Regional Councils), and 31(1)(aa) (Territorial Authorities).
 
73
Environmental Defence Society Inc v The New Zealand King Salmon Co Ltd [2014] NZSC 38, [2014] 1 NZLR 593.
 
74
NES-CIS (2011).
 
75
NES-CIS (2011), r. 4.
 
76
NES-CIS (2011), rr. 7–11.
 
77
Parker Hon (2018).
 
78
Auckland Regional Council v North Shore City Council [1995] 3 NZLR 18 (CA) at 22–25 per Cooke P; Kane Holdings Ltd v Auckland Council [2011] NZEnvC 115 (Env Ct) at [109]-[110].
 
79
RMA ss 30(1)(ba).
 
80
AUP (2016). The AUP replaces the Auckland Council’s ARPS (1999), and ARP-ALW (2012) which both contained extensive policies, rules and guidance relating to soil conservation.
 
81
AUP (2016), at B 9.3.2.
 
82
CRPS (2013).
 
83
CLWRP (2015).
 
84
RPS-WR (2013), esp at ch 3.11 (‘Soils and Minerals’), and RSP-WR (2000). In the Waikato Region, see also, WRPS (2016) ch 14 ‘Soils’, and WRP (2007), ch 5 ‘Land and Soil Module’.
 
85
Auckland Regional Council v North Shore City Council [1995] 3 NZLR 18 (CA) at 22–25 per Cooke P.
 
86
Canterbury Regional Council v Selwyn District Council [1997] NZRMA 25 (Env. Ct) at 47–48.
 
87
Ibid, and see Becmead Investments Ltd v Christchurch City Council [1997] NZRMA 1, esp at 23.
 
88
Canterbury Regional Council v Selwyn District Council [1997] NZRMA 25 (Env. Ct) at 47.
 
89
See Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand Inc v Bay of Plenty Regional Council [2017] NZHC 3080 at [98]. See also Appealing Wanaka Inc v Queenstown Lakes District Council [2015] NZEnvC 139 at [34], [43] and [46]-[47].
 
90
RMA, s 75(3) and (4).
 
91
See the discussion on these suggestions in Grinlinton (2015).
 
92
RMA, s 31(1).
 
93
RMA, s 31(1)(aa).
 
94
RMA, ss 73(4), 75(3).
 
95
RMA, s 75(4).
 
96
CDP (2017), ch 1, at [1.4].
 
97
See, e.g., CDP (2017), ch 8 at [8.7.6] (a) & (c), and [8.7.7] (h) (protection of versatile soils in subdivision); and [8.8.12] (c.)(ii) (soil aeration).
 
98
See, e.g., HCP (2017) esp chs 23 and 25.2; and WCDP (2000) at chs 27–28 (Urban Development Area), 29–30 (Earthworks) and 31–32 (Contaminated Land).
 
99
Madsen Lawrie Consultants v Auckland Council (Formerly Franklin District Council) [2013] NZEnvC 109.
 
100
Smith v Marlborough District Council [2011] NZEnvC 328.
 
101
Kane Holdings Ltd v Auckland Council [2011] NZEnvC 115 (Env Ct). at [67]-[68].
 
102
Self Family Trust v Auckland Council [2018] NZEnvC 49.
 
103
MfE (1995).
 
104
MfE (1997).
 
105
MfE (2007), ch 9. Land’.
 
106
MPI (2015).
 
107
MfE & SNZ (2015), p. 78. See also at 73–88 for a detailed analysis of the economic and environmental importance New Zealand’s land resources, and the pressures and changes being experienced.
 
108
MfE & SNZ (2018).
 
109
MfE & SNZ (2018), pp. 7–11, 16–17, 84–85 and Appendix.
 
110
NZPC (2017), NZPC (2015) and NZPC (2012).
 
111
NZPC (2017) at ch 4, and ch 9 at [9.3], esp 267–268.
 
112
NZPC (2017) at ch 15 at [15.1] esp 428–429, and [15.2].
 
113
MfE (2001).
 
114
Landcare Research (2009).
 
115
Jones Hon (2018).
 
116
Further information on these initiatives can be found at: https://​www.​mpi.​govt.​nz/​funding-and-programmes/​forestry/​erosion-control-funding-programme. Also the New Zealand Landcare Trust facilitates sustainable land management in association with rural communities: see: http://​www.​landcare.​org.​nz/​.
 
117
See Green Growth (No. 2) Ltd v Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust [2016] NZCA 308, [2016] 3 NZLR 726. Further information on the QE II National Trust is available at https://​qeiinationaltrus​t.​org.​nz.
 
118
For information on DoC conservation responsibilities, see: <https://​www.​doc.​govt.​nz/​about-us/​our-role/​managing-conservation/​>.
 
119
Wild Animal Control Act 1977, s 4(2)(a).
 
120
Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, s 4.
 
121
UNGA (2012).
 
123
UNFCCC (2015).
 
124
For recent commentary on the legal status of sustainable development in international law, see Verschuuren (2016).
 
125
Environmental Defence Society Inc v The New Zealand King Salmon Co Ltd [2014] NZSC 38, [2014] 1 NZLR 593.
 
126
Parker Hon (2018).
 
127
Parker Hon (2018).
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Sustainable Management of Urban Soils: The New Zealand Approach
verfasst von
David Grinlinton
Copyright-Jahr
2019
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00758-4_3