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2012 | Buch

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Swarming Landscapes

The Art of Designing For Climate Adaptation

herausgegeben von: Rob Roggema

Verlag: Springer Netherlands

Buchreihe : Advances in Global Change Research

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

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Über dieses Buch

This book advocates a fresh approach to planning that anticipates, rather than reacts to, the changes in climate currently in process. Today’s spatial planning procedures rely on historical evidence instead of preparing for factors that by definition lie in the future, yet which are relatively uncontroversial: shortages of water, sea level rise and rises in average temperatures being but three examples. Arguing for more flexibility, the contributors view ‘complexity’ as the key to transforming the way we plan in order to better equip us to face uncertainties about our future environment.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. The Difficulties to Design for Climate Adaptation

Abstract

In this chapter current spatial planning practices are analysed and it is concluded that these practices are not yet suitable to include wicked problems. The topic of climate change adaptation is seen as a wicked problem, meaning that the problem has no definite solution, the problem is essentially unique, while ‘solving’ the problem new questions can be asked and new information can be added and the solution on one level of the system may lead to problems at the next. Therefore, a fixed planning solution for an urban region or landscape is the ultimate failure in dealing with such problems. Current planning needs to be adjusted in order to be better capable in dealing with climate change adaptation problems. In the planning process and in the results of planning more room for unexpected, unprecedented impacts and new knowledge needs to be created.

Rob Roggema

Chapter 2. Turbulence and Uncertainty

Abstract

This chapter determines the current societal environment as turbulent. It illustrates that depending the type of environment in a certain period, both urban patterns and the way spatial planning and design is practiced change accordingly.

This timeframe is characterised by the free exchange of products, goods, information and values between consumers, who are also producers. It brings society beyond turbulence and in an uncertain timeframe. Uncertainty, which is often treated with the search for more certainty though gaining more knowledge, is however not always reduced in this old-fashioned way. Uncertainty, and more specifically moment uncertainty can be better approached through increasing self-organisation of the system. Learning from swarms, capable of increasing resilience through collaborating in smart groups, can inform spatial planning in a way that the spatial system, a complex adaptive system, also performs swarm behaviour and organises itself in smart collaborating groups of spatial elements.

Rob Roggema

Chapter 3. Complexity Theory, Spatial Planning and Adaptation to Climate Change

Abstract

This chapter analyses several concepts of Complexity Theory as regards their usefulness in spatial planning processes that aim to foster adaptation to climate change. The conditions under which a complex system is likely to change to higher levels of complexity are seen as important when this system needs to deal with and adapt to climatic changes. This understanding is used to develop a framework in which these changes can be examined and explained. Supported by examples from various European countries, four different planning strategies (planning for mitigation, sectored adaptation, integrated adaptation and flexible adaptation) are positioned within the framework. We conclude that each of these strategies fills its own niche in the framework, that all strategies together describe the behaviour of a complex system and that flexible adaptation planning is most likely to facilitate a system change. When this reasoning is reversed and the question concerns which planning strategy fits in best with the demands imposed by climatic change (e.g. for a system change), flexible adaptation planning is seen as the most suitable option.

Wim Timmermans, Francisco Ónega López, Rob Roggema

Chapter 4. Transition and Transformation

Abstract

In this chapter it is argued that fundamental change in society is required, because environmental problems are serious and ask for a factor 10 or more shift in society, the resilience approach (as outlined in Chap. 2) implies change to higher resilience systems and current spatial planning is unable to facilitate fundamental change. Transition of an existing system into a better version of the same system does not comply with the demands of fundamental changes. Instead of choosing for the pathway of change, a change of pathway is required. This transformation of the existing stable regime (system A) into a fundamental other regime (system B) is able to meet the urgency to change. However, Transformation of a system is only possible when the new system is fundamental separated from the original and is capable to develop its own growth curve. The proposed pathway courses via B-minus. A predecessing state of system B consisting of rudimentary spatial elements, which can be observed as critical early warning signals and can be created at specific intersections in the network. These signals require a spatial translation to become useful in spatial planning. Network analysis is needed to determine the locations where to create starting points for a system change.

Rob Roggema, Tim Vermeend, Wim Timmermans

Chapter 5. Networks as the Driving Force for Climate Design

Abstract

In this chapter the potential transformation of an area and the role networks can play is discussed. For a far-future transformation, the current situation as well as the near-future, already taken policy decisions, function as the starting point for the design. Network theory is subsequently used to identify the crucial nodes in the networks where a potential transformation is likely to be successful. These nodes can be defined making use of the common rules of networks. Some points in networks are better (more intensively) connected with more links, than others. These hubs, the more attractive nodes to link with, get richer, which makes them even more attractive to link with, which makes them richer and so forth. The places where these successful nodes are located can be identified and calculated as has been shown in the exercise in this chapter. The number and importance of connections as well as the typology of the nodes (a place consisting of one type is less attractive than if three networks overlap) play an important role in determining the interesting locations. Once these are found they can be used in the design, as is illustrated in the Peat Colonies case study. The structure of networks, with spines, nerves and nodes, in combination with a clear and specific objective leads to challenging and sustainable designs.

Rob Roggema, Sven Stremke

Chapter 6. Swarm Planning Theory

Abstract

In this chapter a new planning theory is developed. The rationale for needing this new theory lies in the fact that current spatial planning paradigms both seen from an academic as practice perspective, lack the possibility to deal with problems that are not straightforward, clearly defined and predictable: wicked problems. The majority of planning literature is still focusing on well-known problems and is operational within a governmental context. Despite the fact that a debate is emerging about the need for planning approaches that incorporate dynamic environments, look at the future from a change perspective and focus on the emergence of spatial order initiated by key actors outside government, recent publications show that 94% of the articles discuss traditional topics and approaches.

If planning needs to be prepared to incorporate wicked problems it is attractive to use complexity theory, which deals with complex adaptive systems. However, the majority of research in complexity theory in relation to planning and cities focuses on the understanding of emergence and self-organisation by developing ever more advanced computational models. This mathematicalisation of the city distracts the attention from intervening in these systems to improve preparedness in dealing with wicked problems.

The gap as shown above can be filled through the launch of a planning theory that deals with unpredictability of the future and incorporates complex systems behaviour. The theory is called Swarm Planning, because it emphasises swarm behaviour of the system to be beneficial for the overall resilience and lessen the impact of uncertainties, complexity and change.

Swarm Planning introduces two planning strategies: intervention in the system as a whole and free emergence through the attribution of individual components with Complex Adaptive System (CAS)-properties in order to perform self-organisation.

Rob Roggema

Chapter 7. Swarm Planning Methodology

Abstract

In this chapter the question how to develop a spatial plan that is able to deal with the unpredictable impacts of climate change is explored. Based on the layer-approach a Spatial Planning Framework for Climate Adaptation is developed, consisting of five layers, each with their specific time-rhythm. All spatial elements can be connected to one of the layers, depending on the pace of change they tend to change. Subsequently the five layers can be used in practice to create a climate proof spatial plan. The process in which the development of a climate proof plan can be best developed needs to appeal creativity and future thinking. Two processes are extremely suitable for developing these kinds of plans: Design Charrettes and the COCD-method. The success of design charrettes lies in the successful use of local expertise and the collective creativity to visualise on maps the desired climate proof future. The COCD-method is successfully used in the Swarm Planning Experiment, creating specific Swarm Plans for the Eemsdelta region in the Netherlands.

Rob Roggema

Chapter 8. Swarming Landscapes

Abstract

The Swarm Planning Theory and Methodology, as outlined in Chaps. 6 and 7 have been used in several design projects in the recent past. Swarm Planning can be applied in different ways. It can be used to formulate a spatial strategy, as the examples of Strategic interventions and steer the swarm show. It can also be used to identify the location and the type of intervention to be taken. This is illustrated through the Groninger Museum and Blauwe Stad examples. The third way of applying Swarm Planning is to design climate landscapes, in which not only the intervention is identified but also the dynamic impact in the landscape is part of the design. The examples of a Floodable landscape and the two Bushfire resilient landscapes of Murrindindi and Bendigo illuminate this. Finally, Swarm Planning can be used to create innovative spatial solutions for a specific design assignment. The laboratorial setting of the Swarm Planning Experiment proves the innovative capacity of the approach. All four applications are seen worthwhile and support the potential of the Swarm Planning theory, methodology and use.

Rob Roggema

Chapter 9. Cities as Organisms

Abstract

Since the UN report by the Brundtland Committee, sustainability in the built environment has mainly been seen from a technical focus on single buildings or products. With the energy efficiency approaching 100%, fossil resources depleting and a considerable part of the world still in need of better prosperity, the playing field of a technical focus has become very limited. It will most probably not lead to the sustainable development needed to avoid irreversible effects on climate, energy provision and, not least, society.

Cities are complex structures of independently functioning elements, all of which are nevertheless connected to different forms of infrastructure, which provide the necessary sources or solve the release of waste material. With the current ambitions regarding carbon- or energy-neutrality, retreating again to the scale of a building is likely to fail. Within an urban context a single building cannot become fully resource-independent, and need not, from our viewpoint. Cities should be considered as an organism that has the ability to intelligently exchange sources and waste flows. Especially in terms of energy, it can be made clear that the present situation in most cities are undesired: there is simultaneous demand for heat and cold, and in summer a lot of excess energy is lost, which needs to be produced again in winter. The solution for this is a system that intelligently exchanges and stores essential sources, e.g. energy, and that optimally utilises waste flows.

This new approach will be discussed and exemplified. The Rotterdam Energy Approach and Planning (REAP) will be illustrated as a means for urban planning, whereas Swarm Planning will be introduced as another nature-based principle for swift changes towards sustainability.

Andy van den Dobbelsteen, Greg Keeffe, Nico Tillie, Rob Roggema

Chapter 10. The Best City?

Abstract

Designers have long tried to design the best possible city. Many examples illustrate however that buildings and cities are although designed with the best purposes, in reality not function very well. The local climate is often difficult to influence the designs in a way that these buildings are successful, even more needed in a changing climate. Explorations of the past planned, sustainable and self-organising cities illustrate that despite the fact that these cities were developed with honest and valuable goals, there are many side effects that contradict with the original aims. When smart people from another culture, without constraints about regulations and political habits are asked to design the best city, a wide range of climate adaptive strategies are implemented in the designs.

It is clear that the best city doesn’t exist, but six actions are distinguished that enhance climate adaptive cities: analyse networks, focus on key nodes, free self-organising developments, plan the unplanned, release control and check-up regularly.

Rob Roggema

Backmatter

Titel: Swarming Landscapes
herausgegeben von: Rob Roggema
Verlag: Springer Netherlands
Electronic ISBN: 978-94-007-4378-6
Print ISBN: 978-94-007-4377-9
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4378-6