What Is Said About Graphene?
In sentences in the articles of the sample, γ-terms are found in a number of different syntactic positions. For the noun
grafen, the most common ones are as follows: complement of preposition in prepositional phrase (31% of sentences), subject of (active) clause (22% of sentences), pre-head modifier (19% of sentences), and object of clause (15% of sentences) (see Table
1 for examples of these categories). Additional, less common categories of syntactic functions of
grafen are subject of passive clause (5% of sentences) and predicative complement (1% of sentences). Finally, not all uses of
grafen can be ascribed a syntactic function (3% of sentences), as in headlines.
In 22% of sentences, grafen has modifiers and complements. The main ones are epithets (13% of sentences), prepositional phrase complements (4% of sentences), relative clauses (2% of sentences), peripheral dependents (2% of sentences), and adjectives (2% of sentences).
Considering α-terms, most of them consist of the nominal anaphora “the material” (43% of α-terms) and “the super material” (11% of α-terms) or the pronoun “it” (33% of α-terms). Other α-terms include zero anaphora (10% of α-terms) and other nominal or pronominal anaphora (3% of α-terms), such as “the substance” and “this.” Unlike explicit references to graphene (with the noun grafen), the most common syntactic function of an α-term is that of being the subject of active clause (57%), followed by complement of preposition in prepositional phrase (13%), object of clause (12%), and subject of passive clause (11%). Compared with the explicit noun (grafen), proportionally, more α-terms function as subjects while proportionally fewer function as complements of prepositions in prepositional phrases and pre-head modifiers (only 5% of the α-terms). Like grafen, some α-terms cannot be ascribed a syntactic function (2%).
These syntactic patterns of γ-terms, together with the specific words that instantiate each structure, form the basis for identifying themes of what is said about graphene. The themes are presented in a conceptual order, rather than in one based on frequency. Note that only themes present in at least 5% of the articles are presented. Nor are the themes mutually exclusive, in that one sentence (and article) with a γ-term can instantiate more than one of these themes and subthemes. Table
3 provides an overview of the themes.
Table 3
Themes of what was said about graphene in at least 5% of articles (N = 229)
Material | 162 | 71 | the material graphene; graphene is a material |
Super material | 94 | 41 | the super material graphene |
Carbon | 58 | 25 | the carbon material graphene; graphene consists of carbon atoms |
Nano | 23 | 10 | graphene is a nanomaterial; the nanometer-thin material graphene |
Thickness | 55 | 24 | graphene is a very thin material |
Strength | 63 | 28 | graphene is stronger than steel |
Conductivity | 55 | 24 | graphene conducts electricity and heat |
Transparency | 33 | 14 | graphene is transparent |
Flexibility | 35 | 15 | graphene is bendable |
Weight | 30 | 13 | graphene is light |
Properties (nonspecific) | 31 | 14 | properties of graphene; graphene’s properties |
Physical arrangement (form) | 93 | 41 | graphene consists of carbon atoms arranged in a chicken-wire pattern |
Two-dimensionality | 23 | 10 | graphene is considered two-dimensional; the two-dimensional material graphene |
Compound | 24 | 10 | graphene on silicon carbide; graphene oxide |
Research | 80 | 35 | graphene research; research on graphene; researchers manufacture graphene |
Other science relation | 42 | 18 | study of graphene; at the University of Linköping [Sweden] they produce graphene |
Scientific organization | 32 | 15 | graphene project; graphene center; conference on graphene |
Scientific manipulation and testing | 35 | 15 | researchers test graphene; measures have been made of graphene; experiments on graphene |
Discovery | 32 | 14 | graphene is a discovery; A. Geim and K. Novoselov discovered graphene |
Nobel Prize | 58 | 25 | A. Geim and K. Novoselov got the Nobel Prize for discovering graphene; graphene, a Nobel-Prize-winning material |
Manufacturing: output | 56 | 24 | a company that manufactures graphene; graphene production; graphene producer |
Manufacturing: building block | 36 | 16 | solar cells are produced with graphene; you can build a bullet-proof vest with graphene |
Quality | 16 | 7 | graphene of high quality; high-quality graphene |
Use | 49 | 21 | the use of graphene; everyone wants to use graphene |
Application and products (general) | 42 | 18 | graphene product; products with graphene; application of graphene |
Specific applications and products | 106 | 46 | graphene in transistors; graphene in speaker membranes; graphene car; the [shoe] soles contain graphene |
Substitution | 17 | 7 | graphene can replace rare metals; graphene can replace silica |
Commercialization | 49 | 21 | the company is trying to commercialize graphene; graphene will revolutionize industry; the company’s graphene production; it is possible to buy different types of graphene |
Benefits | 55 | 24 | the benefits of graphene; graphene’s possibilities |
Revolution | 24 | 10 | graphene can revolutionize European industry |
Hope and fascination | 39 | 17 | graphene raises the hopes of industry; researchers are fascinated by graphene |
Beneficiary | 21 | 9 | EU invests in graphene |
Novelty | 32 | 14 | the new material graphene |
Sweden | 22 | 10 | graphene in Sweden; Swedish graphene |
Uniqueness | 14 | 6 | graphene has unique properties |
Physio-chemical Characterization
Graphene is ascribed a number of physical and chemical properties. First, graphene is frequently classified as a “material” (71% of articles), for example, “the material graphene” and “graphene is a material.” In many of these cases, graphene as a “material” is more enthusiastically specified as a “super material” (41%). Another common classification of graphene is as “carbon” (25%), often in combination with “material,” for example, “the carbon material graphene” and “graphene is a layer of carbon atoms.” In 10% of the articles, what is said about graphene relates to nano, for example, graphene is said to be “nano,” as in “the nanomaterial graphene,” “graphene is a nanomaterial,” “the nanometer-thin material graphene,” “graphene is a nanometer-thin super material,” “graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms with an approximate width of 0.4 nanometer,” and “graphene is 0.4-nanometer-thick carbon.” Below, graphene’s association with “nano” is revisited.
Other physical properties ascribed to graphene are high strength (28%), minimal thickness (24%), high conductivity (24%), transparency (14%), bendability (15%), and low weight (13%). Often several of these properties are listed in combination, for example, “graphene is a thin, super-strong, bendable, transparent, conductive material that consists of carbon molecules.” Sometimes generic non-specified reference is made to graphene’s “properties” (14%).
The shape or physical arrangement of graphene is frequently referred to (41%). For example, graphene is said to be a “layer of carbon atoms” (as quoted above) and “graphene consists of only one layer of carbon atoms arranged in a chicken-wire pattern.” Other examples include compounds such as “graphene layer,” “graphene sheet,” and “graphene flake.” In the articles referring to its shape, graphene is sometimes said to be “two-dimensional” (10%). Finally, a physical feature ascribed to graphene is that it is said to be compounded with other substances (10%), for example, “graphene oxide” and “graphene on silicon carbide.”
Research and Science
In 35% of the articles, graphene is represented as an object of “research,” for example, “graphene research,” “graphene researcher,” “research on graphene,” and “researchers work on graphene.” Relatedly, but not explicitly referring to “research,” graphene is represented as an object of scientific attention in other ways (18%), for example, “article on graphene,” “thesis on graphene,” and “studies of graphene.” Other examples of this category include reference to universities and scientific titles, for example, “Chalmers [University] uses this technology to manufacture graphene” and “the Russian professors Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov produced graphene from a piece of graphite.” Another category consists of science and research organizations and collaborations (15%), namely, “programs,” “projects,” and “conferences,” for example, “graphene program,” “graphene project,” and “conference on graphene.”
Related to these themes of research and science, graphene is represented as an object of specific forms of manipulation in research and engineering (15%), for example, “researchers test graphene,” “graphene is being developed,” “graphene is mixed with rubber,” “graphene is bombarded with gallium ions,” “measurements are made of graphene,” and “experiments with graphene.” Another research and science process is that of discovery. In 14% of the articles, the “discovery” of graphene is explicitly referred to. Finally, in 25% of the articles, graphene is said to have prompted the awarding of “the Nobel Prize,” as in “the discoverers of the super material graphene got this year’s Nobel Prize in physics” and “the Nobel Prize-awarded material graphene.”
Manufacturing
Graphene is said to be associated with manufacturing in two ways: (i) graphene is itself “produced” and “manufactured” (24%)
1 and (ii) rather than being the outcome of manufacturing, graphene is represented as a building block for manufacturing other things (16%). Examples of the former are as follows: “at the University of Linköping, they produce graphene” and “the researchers manufacture thin layers of graphene.” Examples of the latter are the following: “light panels and solar cells could also be constructed with graphene” and “Korean researchers have manufactured light speakers with the super material graphene.” The producers, if specified, include researchers and industry, so this category overlaps with the previous one, as well as with the next one, depending on whether the subject/producer is a researcher or a company (more details about products incorporating graphene are presented in the next section). In the context of manufacturing, the graphene produced is sometimes said to be of “high quality” (7%).
Application and Use
Quite often, graphene is said to be “used” (21%), for example, “graphene is used,” “we can use graphene,” and “the use of graphene.” Relatedly, “applications” and “products” of graphene are referred to (18%), for example, “graphene application,” “application of graphene,” and “graphene product.” In addition to these general descriptions, reference is made to more specific graphene applications and products (46%), for example, in “transistors,” “batteries,” “circuits,” “computers,” “displays,” and “sensors.” In addition to these objects, there are sometimes references to process-oriented forms of application. One such process is the possibility of using graphene as a substitute for other materials (7%), for example, “medical researchers and engineers try to replace damaged retinas with graphene” and “graphene is often pointed out as a replacement for silica in electronic circuits.”
Commercialization
In 21% of the articles, what is said about graphene reflects its role in commercialization. In close association with words such as “company” and “industry,” it is said, for example, that graphene will “become a new Swedish industry” and (as noted above) is manufactured by companies (e.g., “a small number of companies manufactures graphene”). Also, graphene is said to be something “sold” and “bought,” for example, “Graphensic in Linköping sells graphene” and graphene is said to be both “expensive” and “cheap.”
Societal Significance and Benefit
Graphene is said to be beneficial in various ways (24%), for example, “now come the benefits of graphene,” “human imagination is the (only) limitation to where and how graphene can be beneficial,” and “graphene is on its way to change the world.” In these positive representations, graphene is said to be “revolutionary” (10%), for example, “graphene is a material that will revolutionize our everyday lives” and “graphene can revolutionize energy production in the future.”
Relatedly, graphene is said to be the focus of hopes and fascination (17%), for example, “now researchers set their hopes on graphene,” “the super material graphene raises the hopes of industry,” and “since its discovery in 2004, researchers have been fascinated by graphene.” Relatedly, graphene is represented as a beneficiary of some action (9%), for example, “the EU makes large investments in graphene.”
Other
Three remaining themes reach frequencies of at least 5%. First, in 14% of the articles, graphene is said to be something novel, for example, “the new material graphene.” Second, in 10% of articles, graphene is geographically anchored in Sweden, for example, “Swedish graphene is ready for production.” Third, in 6% of the articles, graphene is said to be “unique.”
Non-factuality and Expectations in Representations of Graphene
A dimension that cuts across these representations of graphene is the difference between what graphene
is (or
was) and what it
can (or
will)
be. Typically, the unmarked (indicative) form in a language (e.g., “graphene
is a layer of carbon atoms”) represents a situation as factual, while the non-factual representation of a situation is marked using a variety of linguistic devices [
64,
69]. For example, situations that
could or
will be are represented by tense systems and the grammatical category of future tense; modal systems, including modal auxiliaries (e.g.,
can and
could) and adverbs (e.g.,
maybe); and verbs of propositional attitudes (e.g.,
hope that,
expect that, and
wish that). Although past tense, like future tense, is marked in languages like Swedish and English, the past is very different from the future. While the past (that which
has been) is grouped together with the present (that which
is) to form the factual, the future is not [
63,
64,
70]. Following this distinction between factual and hypothetical, expectation is a species of the former.
Of the themes listed above, some of them mostly combine with expressions of factuality (e.g., representations of physio-chemical characterization, such as thickness, strength, and conductivity; manufacturing; discovery; and the Nobel Prize), while others tend to combine with expressions of expectations (e.g., use, application, commercialization, benefits, and hope and fascination). Of the 1519 sentences analyzed, expectations about graphene are expressed in 28%. Examples of such sentences are as follows: “graphene will change the world” (future tense); “graphene will be a new Swedish industry” (future tense); “the goal is Swedish graphene products on the market within two years” (future adverbial); “graphene may revolutionize IT and communication technologies” (modal verb); and “The EU hopes that the supermaterial [i.e., graphene] will help to accelerate growth in Europe” (the verb hope and future tense). Overall, 54% of the articles (n = 229) contain at least one sentence that expresses an expectation about graphene.
What Graphene Is Not
In a few articles, graphene is denied properties (11%). Some of these dissociations contribute to the representation of graphene as an exceptional material, i.e., graphene is said not to be thicker than a carbon atom (one article), not to be soft (one article), and not to be visible (two articles). Moreover, graphene is said not to let gases and liquids through or to be impenetrable (three articles) and to lack a band gap (four articles), i.e., a concept in physics that, for example, explains the conductivity of a material. In two articles, products with graphene (i.e., computers and motorcycle helmets) are said not to be as easily heated.
Other cases in which graphene is denied properties concern the manufacturing of graphene and its being part of products. There are claims that not many can produce graphene (one article), but also that the mass production of graphene is not more difficult than small-scale production (one article). In contrast to ascribing high quality to graphene (see above), there are claims that it is not possible to manufacture high-quality graphene (one article) and that almost no graphene on the market is of high quality (one article). There are claims that bridges cannot be built of graphene alone (one article), that equally efficient changeover switches (omkopplare) cannot be made of graphene as opposed to silicon (one article), and that “we have not found any new home interior that contains graphene” (one article). There is the claim that “there are many who cannot buy graphene” (one article). Also, there is the conditional statement that, if graphene is not produced in perfect layers, it will become weak (one article).
Four articles articulate skeptical claims regarding the hopes ascribed to graphene: that it “has not worked as well as many had hoped” (one article); that it “has not succeeded at industrial scale” (one article); that “no graphene revolution has happened” (one article); and that “there is no chance that graphene will replace steel,” which can be compared with what is affirmatively said about graphene (see above). Also, in contrast to claims of the novelty of graphene (see above), one article claims that “making filters of graphene is nothing new.”
Another article asks “Is graphene harmless?” (
ofarlig) and continues by discussing the potential risks of graphene (see next section). Three other articles
deny that graphene has negative physical effects on humans, saying that, in contrast to nanotubes, it does not penetrate the lungs and cause inflammation; it does not irritate human tissue; and it is “just carbon” and “does not cause any problems” (cf. [
71]). In two other articles claiming that “graphene kills bacteria” and that “graphene is an efficient antibacterial agent,” graphene is said to be “harmless to bacteria” in particular forms and that graphene is not, in general, an “antibacterial agent” (
bakteridödare).