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2019 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

5. The Agricultural Sector

verfasst von : Mats Lundahl, Fredrik Sjöholm

Erschienen in: The Creation of the East Timorese Economy

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Abstract

This chapter contrasts Timor’s record with the agricultural dynamism evident in much of Southeast Asia. The agricultural sector is low in production, and it is not competitive internationally. Imports have to be resorted to in order to ensure food security. Production rests on shifting cultivation, bush fallow rotation, and simple hand tools. The main crops—rice and maize—both display considerable fluctuations, and their absolute yields are among the lowest in the region. The production of coffee, the most important export crop, is decreasing. The quality of the land is low and possibly declining, capital inputs are sparsely used, and credit is difficult to obtain. Most of the time, unimproved seed is used, but introduction of high-yielding varieties has proved successful for several crops. The low educational level and the lack of an effective extension service make the introduction of innovations difficult.

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Johnston and Mellor (1961).

See for example Williamson (2014), Booth (2014).

Timmer (2014), p. 91.

Bezemer and Headey (2008).

Woo (1991), Hill (1992).

Hill (1996), p. 123.

Timmer (2014), p. 92.

Ibid.

TOMAK (2016c), p. 15.

Joseph and Hamaguchi (2014), p. 63.

Ibid.

World Bank (2018d), p. 45.

Viegas (2007).

Molyneux et al. (2012), p. 823.

Ministry of Finance, General Directorate of Statistics (2015), pp. 2, 19, 21, (2016), pp. 6, 18, 21.

World Bank (2016d), p. 12.

FAO and World Food Programme (2007), p. 22.

World Bank (2005e), p. 5.

Booth (2004).

World Bank (2005e), p. 5.

Molyneux et al. (2012), p. 825.

Viegas (2007).

However, the distribution of hand tractors to rice farmers undertaken by the government between 2007 and 2011 appears not to have had much influence on rice production. The farmers did not know how to use them, they were used for other purposes than rice production, conflicts arose between farmers with respect to the order of their use, the criteria used for their distribution were deficient, supporting irrigation schemes were lacking, and so on (Soares de Jesus and Mendonça 2015).

Viegas (2007), p. 70.

Ibid, p. 23.

UNDP (2006), p. 27; UNDP (2011), p. 79; Inder et al. (2014), p. 22.

Barlow (2001), p. 110.

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2004), p. 2.

It should also be noted that the figures reported by the FAO may be exaggerated. Other sources claim lower figures for rice and maize production (cf. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 2009).

Spyckerelle et al. (2016), pp. 43–44.

World Bank (2018d), p. 46.

Ibid.

Inder et al. (2013), p. 4.

Fox (2001), p. 164.

World Bank (2011a), p. 41.

World Bank (2001), p. 6, Oxfam (2003), p. 19.

Old and Caetano dos Santos (2003), p. 139.

Oxfam (2003), p. 3.

It has been estimated that replanting and pruning alone could triple coffee production (World Bank 2011a, p. 46).

Inder et al. (2013), pp. 4–5.

Amaral (2003), pp. 24–25.

Moreno (2000), p. 3.

Inder et al. (2013), pp. 16–17.

World Bank (2011a), p. 41.

Moreno (2000), p. 3.

Inder et al. (2013), p. 18.

Timmer (2014), p. 110.

TOMAK (2016c), p. 15.

Ibid., p. 26.

Ibid., p. 13.

Ibid., p. 19.

TOMAK (2016b), p. 9.

TOMAK (2016c), p. 6.

TOMAK (2016a), p. 39.

A crop-by-crop discussion of possible ways of improving productivity is found in TOMAK (2016b).

See for example Griffin (1974), for a discussion.

Fox (2001), p.155.

UNDP (2006), p. 19.

Ibid., p. 21, FAO and World Food Programme (2007), p. 5.

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2004), p. 1.

Joseph and Hamaguchi (2014), p. 64.

Fox (2001), p. 157.

UNDP (2006), Table 2.1.

Ministry of Planning and Finance and World Bank (2003), p. 30.

UNDP (2006), p. 26.

Viegas (2001).

Viegas (2007), p. 258.

República Democrática de Timor-Leste (2011a), p. 120. Cf., however, note 22 above.

Dethier and Effenberger (2012). See Viegas (2003) for a discussion of the relevance of the experience of other countries for mechanization in East Timor.

FAO (2012), p. 466.

World Bank (2015), pp. 97–100.

World Bank (2015), p. 68.

República Demcrática de Timor-Leste (2011a), pp. 121, 125.

World Bank (2015), pp. 68, 70–71.

Ibid., pp. 100–101.

Ibid., p. 101.

Ibid., pp. 100–102.

Ibid., pp. 97–100.

Ibid., pp. 73–77, 79, 102, 83.

Ibid., pp. 78–89.

Ibid., p. 84.

Ibid., p. 102.

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2007).

World Bank (2015), p. 88.

Ibid., p. 89.

Ibid., p. 77.

Ministry of Planning and Finance and World Bank (2003), p. ix; Care International Timor Leste (2004), p. 19.

Da Costa et al. (2013), p. 90.

Lopes and Nesbitt (2012), Table 3.

Banco Central de Timor-Leste (2014), p. 50.

Ibid., p. 31.

Ibid, p. 15.

FAO and World Food Programme (2007), p. 12.

World Bank (2011a), pp. 97–98.

TOMAK (2016c), p. 20.

Tambun et al. (2016), p. 123. For a study of the rotating credit associations in East Timor, of which there are few, 329 with 6645 members in 2014, see ibid., pp. 123–124.

Johnston and Mellor (1961), p. 569.

UNDP (2006), p. 28.

Spyckerelle et al. (2016), p. 38. Detailed information is also available in Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Seeds of Life (2013).

100

Spyckerelle et al. (2016), p. 39. See Gonzalez Ceniceros et al. (2003), Javier et al. (2003), Jayasinghe et al. (2003), Nigam et al. (2003), and Howeler et al. (2003) for details.

101

Spyckerelle et al. (2016), p. 39.

102

Ibid.

103

Ibid., p. 40.

104

Kunwar et al. (2016), pp. 68–69, 71.

105

Spyckerelle et al. (2016), pp. 40–41. The acceptance among rice farmers was lower. Only 45 percent of the adopters grew only improved varieties and the average crop area devoted to them was lower yet: 43 percent.

106

The introduction of the program is dealt with in Piggin and Palmer (2003).

107

Spyckerelle et al. (2016), p. 42.

108

Kunwar et al. (2016), p. 72

109

World Bank (2011a).

110

Ibid., p. 30.

111

Barlow (2001), p. 120.

112

Da Cruz (2003), p. 13.

113

TOMAK (2016c), p. 43.

114

Da Cruz (2003), p. 13.

115

TOMAK (2016c), p. 22.

116

Da Cruz (2003), p. 15.

117

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (2012), p. 6.

118

Joseph and Hamaguchi (2014), p. 75.

119

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (2012), p. 13, Joseph and Hamagushi (2014), pp. 75–76.

120

República Democrática de Timor-Leste (2011a), p. 76.

121

In many developing countries insufficient competition in the transport sector has resulted in high transport prices (Raballand et al. 2010).

122

UNDP (2006), p. 29.

123

República Democrática de Timor-Leste (2011a), p. 73.

124

World Bank (2015), p. 127.

125

República Democrática de Timor-Leste (2011a), p. 73.

126

World Bank (2011b), Annex 10.1.

127

República Democrática de Timor-Leste (2011a), p. 73.

128

Joseph and Hamaguchi (2014), p. 71.

129

TOMAK (2016c), p. 17.

130

Dethier and Effenberger (2012), p. 187.

131

Jouanjean (2013), p.18.

132

World Bank (2015), p. 107.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 125.

Ibid., p. 121.

Ibid., p. 132.

República Democrática de Timor-Leste (2011a), p. 74.

139

World Bank (2015), pp. 109–110.

140

Ibid., p. 111.

141

Jouanjean (2013), p. 9.

142

For example, Nkonya et al. (2011).

143

Hettige (2006).

144

Mu and van de Walle (2011).

145

Kwon (2006).

146

Jalan and Ravallion (2002).

147

Jouanjean (2013), p.15.

148

UNDP (2006), p. 30.

149

República Democrática de Timor-Leste (2011a), p. 122.

150

Lopes and Nesbitt (2012), p. 9.

151

Ibid.

152

Fitzpatrick (2001b), p.1.

153

Fitzpatrick (2002), p. 7.

154

Ibid.

155

World Bank (2018a), p. 199. The ranking is found on the web-page http://www.doingbusiness.org/rankings.

156

Fitzpatrick (2002), p. 1.

157

Fitzpatrick (2001a), (2002), p. 15, Harrington (2007), International Crisis Group (2010). For a discussion of traditional views of land rights in East Timor, see Cryan (2015).

158

Joseph and Hamaguchi (2014), p. 65.

159

Fitzpatrick (2002), p. 21.

160

UNDP (2006), p. 29.

161

Justice for the Poor (2010), p. 3.

162

Government of Timor-Leste (2017e).

163

World Bank (2018d), p. 14.

164

See for example Bezemer and Headey (2008).

165

Joseph and Hamaguchi (2014, p. 72), World Bank (2011a), p. 77.

166

Timmer (2001), p. 105, UNDP (2006), p. 41.

167

TOMAK (2016c), pp. 14, 18.

168

Lopes and Nesbitt (2012), p. 8

169

Anderson and Feder (2007).

170

Dorward et al. (2004).

171

Inder et al. (2014), p. 23.

172

The data used in the study are a decade old. However, as the authors point out: ‘While much has changed in Timor-Leste since 2007, it is generally accepted that rural, agricultural life has not changed significantly for the majority of the population’ (ibid., p. 20).

173

TOMAK (2016c), p. 6.

174

Islam et al. (2016), p. 116.

175

As it seems, the pricing system sometimes also serves to discourage farmers from producing higher-quality commodities, for instance, in the case of coffee, where flat price is paid both for cherry (untreated beans) and for parchment (semi-processed coffee). No premium is obtained for processing or quality (República Democrática de Timor-Leste 2011a, p. 129, Joseph and Hamaguchi 2014, p. 69).

Conroy (2006).

Ibid., p. 21.

Ibid., p. 20.

Cf. also Inder et al. (2013), pp. 41–42, where it is suggested that the price paid to coffee growers is too low to serve as an incentive for increased production.

180

Conroy (2006), p. 21.

181

Myint (1958).

182

Findlay and Lundahl (1994).

183

TOMAK (2016a), p. 13.

184

Lundahl and Sjöholm (2013).

185

Da Costa (2003), p. 47.

186

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2007), p. 8.

187

Ibid., p. 19.

188

Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (2011b), p. 9.

189

Gusmão (2017), p. 6.

190

Timor-Leste National Action Programme (2008), p. 8.

Ibid.

Hunnam (2009), p. 7.

Rybczynski (1955).

See Lundahl (1979), Chapter 5, for a parallel case: that of Haiti.

195

Molyneux et al. (2012), p. 824.

196

Hunnam (2009), p. 9.

197

Ibid.

198

Molyneux et al. (2012), p. 828.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 834.

Ibid., p. 831.

Ibid., p. 829.

Ibid., pp. 828–829.

Ibid., p. 833.

Ibid., p. 835.

Ibid., p. 833.

Ibid., p. 834.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 835.

Boserup (1965).

Lundahl and Ndulu (1990).

213

An alternative formulation would be to assume that the household maximizes expected utility subject to a survival constraint. The present formulation does not take uncertainty into account.

214

Possibly, the household is not interested in leisure. This reduces the utility maximization to a choice between the consumption of food and manufactured goods.

215

Conroy (2006), p. 20.

216

See Lundahl and Sjöholm (2005), p. 14.

217

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Titel: The Agricultural Sector
verfasst von: Mats Lundahl
Fredrik Sjöholm
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: The Creation of the East Timorese Economy
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-22051-8

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-22052-5

Copyright-Jahr: 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22052-5_5

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