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2016 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

The Current System of Trade and Intellectual Property Rights

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Abstract

One of the key arguments of the proponents of the Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights adopted as a component of the World Trade Organization was that the grant of intellectual property rights would boost innovation globally. The world map of R&D, however, does not show a general improvement of R&D capabilities in developing countries in the last 20 years. While the pharmaceutical industry was an active promoter of that Agreement, the innovation in this sector has declined. The proliferation of pharmaceutical patents reflects strategies aiming at blocking generic competition rather than a genuine increase in innovation. Alternative models to generate new drugs, especially those needed to address diseases prevalent in developing countries, are needed.

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Fußnoten
1
Paris Convention on the Protection of Industrial Property (1883), Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1886) and Madrid Agreement for the Repression of False or Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods was also adopted at that time (1891).
 
2
Universal Copyright Convention (UCC), adopted in Geneva, Switzerland in 1952.
 
3
See Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations (1961), the International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) (1961), the Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration (1967), the Patent Cooperation Treaty (1970), the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms against Unauthorized Duplication of their Phonograms (1971), the Brussels Convention Relating to the Distribution of Programme-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite (1974) and the Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure (1977).
 
4
Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization signed at Stockholm on July 14, 1967, Preamble, second recital.
 
5
Deveraux et al. (2006).
 
6
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7
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9
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29
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32
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Productivity Commission 2012, Trade Assistance Review 2010–2011. Annual Report Series, http://​www.​pc.​gov.​au/​about/​governance/​annual-reports/​annual-report-2010-11/​annual-report-2010-11.​pdf (last accessed 2 July 2015), p. 100.
 
37
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42
The figure includes drugs that are classified as ‘new molecular entities’ (NMEs), which are characterized as ‘new’ for administrative purposes by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), but nonetheless contain active moieties that are closely related to active moieties in products that have previously been approved by FDA, FDA, New Drugs at FDA: CDER’s New Molecular Entities and New Therapeutic Biological Products. January 2015, http://​www.​fda.​gov/​Drugs/​DevelopmentAppro​valProcess/​DrugInnovation/​ucm20025676.​htm Scherer F, A Note on Global Welfare in Pharmaceutical Patenting. Working Paper No. 03-11 Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, November 2002, https://​www.​philadelphiafed.​org/​research-and-data/​publications/​working-papers/​2003/​wp03-11.​pdf (last accessed 11 May 2015), p. 10.
 
43
See Article 65 of the TRIPS Agreement.
 
44
See e.g., Hurley D, A Diabetes Drug Made the Old-fashioned Way, International New York Times, 15 November 2014, p. 12.
 
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Scannell et al. (2012), pp. 191–200. As a result of the observed decline, the authors suggest that in the field of pharmaceuticals an inverse Moore’s Law (which predicated that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit would double every 2 years) applies (‘Eroom’s Law’).
 
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World Health Organization (WHO), Public Health: Innovation and Intellectual Property Rights. Report of Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, Innovation and Public Health, April 2006, http://​www.​who.​int/​intellectualprop​erty/​documents/​thereport/​CIPIH23032006.​pdf (last accessed 11 May 2015). Type II diseases are incident in both developed and developing countries, but with a substantial proportion of the cases in the latter. Type III diseases are those that are overwhelmingly or exclusively incident in developing countries, such as malaria and Chagas disease.
 
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Nair and Fernandes (2014), p. 14.
 
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A ‘Markush claim’ consists of the generic description of a chemical formula which includes a multiplicity of closely related compounds.
 
71
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77
High prices may also be the result of data exclusivity regimes, i.e., those that prevent generic companies to use or rely test on data for a certain period after the first approval of a drug to introduce a generic version thereof. For instance, a study found that ‘of all the current forms of intellectual property protection in Jordan, the provision for data protection has the most significant effect on the price of medicines’ (Abbott R, Access to Medicines and Intellectual Property in Jordan. Intellectual Property Watch, 23 July 2012, http://​www.​ip-watch.​org/​2012/​07/​23/​access-to-medicines-and-intellectual-property-in-jordan/​ (last accessed 19 May 2015). See also, for the case of Colombia, Cortés Gamba M, Rossi Buenaventura F, Vásquez Serrano M (2012) Impacto de 10 Años de Protección de Datos en Medicamentos en Colombia. IFARMA, Bogotá http://​web.​ifarma.​org/​index.​php?​option=​com_​content&​view=​article&​id=​70:​serie-buscando-remedio-qimpacto-de-10-anos-de-proteccion-de-datos-en-medicamentos-en-colombiaq&​catid=​22:​buscando-remedio (last accessed 3 July 2015).
 
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79
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81
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82
Dosi and Stiglitz (2014), p. 4.
 
83
Mowery et al. (2010), p. 20.
 
84
Open Source Drug Recovery, http://​www.​osdd.​net/​about-us (last accessed 24 May 2015).
 
85
See, e.g., Correa (2008).
 
86
See, e.g. UNDP/UNAIDS (2012) The Potential Impact of Free Trade Agreements on Public Health. Issue Brief, http://​www.​unaids.​org/​sites/​default/​files/​media_​asset/​JC2349_​Issue_​Brief_​Free-Trade-Agreements_​en_​0.​pdf (last accessed 24 May 2015); Grover A (2009) Report of the Special Rapporteur on the .Right of Everyone to the Enjoyment of the Highest Attainable Standard of Physical and Mental Health. A/HRC/11/12, http://​www2.​ohchr.​org/​english/​bodies/​hrcouncil/​docs/​11session/​A.​HRC.​11.​12_​en.​pdf (last accessed 24 May 2015); Manoranjan A (2013) Free Trade Agreements and Access to Medicines: Need for Regulation. SSRN: http://​ssrn.​com/​abstract=​2273275 (last accessed 24 May 2015).
 
88
Dosi and Stiglitz (2014), p. 3.
 
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Metadaten
Titel
The Current System of Trade and Intellectual Property Rights
verfasst von
Carlos M. Correa
Copyright-Jahr
2016
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29215-1_8