The Economics of Addictive Behaviours Volume IV

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. Introduction

Abstract

This is the fourth volume of The Economics of Addictive Behaviours and deals with the causes and consequences of overweight and obesity, which are seen here largely as the consequence of lifestyle to satisfy short-term gratification which has long-term consequences. However, the causes of obesity are multidisciplinary and therefore call for multidisciplinary solutions. Obesity is mainly caused by the overconsumption of calories and technological innovations; such as fast food outlets, which have decreased the relative prices of energy-dense, mass-produced foods and so produced a shift in the demand of food, and subsequently an increase in obesity. Technological advances have reduced the required physical energy at work as much work that previously required physical energy is more and more done by machines.

John Joshua

Chapter 2. The History of Obesity and Its Distribution by Social Class and Geography

Abstract

This chapter highlights the vast worldwide increase in overweight and obesity and shows how the different social classes are affected to a different degree. Overweight and obesity also differ in their geographic distribution and their associated increases in the costs of health and a decline in the quality of life. The socio-spatial inequalities enhance the risk of overweight and obesity as they often create an obesogenic environment from which many individuals find it difficult to escape. Overweight and obesity are largely the consequence of various detrimental environmental factors, such as early infants feeding practices. Poverty has been discussed as it may cause the formation of obesogenic families which increases the risk of an unhealthy lifestyle.

John Joshua

Chapter 3. The Phenomenon of the Body Mass Index

Abstract

The body mass index will be explained. Various theories are referred to of why individuals have become more obese over the years. Overweight may be seen as a disease of affluence; as countries grow out of poverty, the degree of obesity will increase. As the ‘average’ BMI for the vast population in most countries has increased‚ the norm of what is regarded as normal and therefore as acceptable has increased as well. Economic shocks may also contribute towards obesity; there is higher income elasticity of demand for food with high-fat content, so that an increase in income in the lower SES leads to an increase of the consumption of unhealthy food.

John Joshua

Chapter 4. The Mismatch Between Food RequirementsFood requirements and Actual DietsActual diets

Abstract

This chapter discusses the causes of overweight and obesity and begins with the food requirements for a healthier life and the actual diets as a cause of obesity. The main argument of this chapter is that there is in many instances a mismatch between the requirements of food for a healthy life and the actual diets which people consume. It is argued that the human digestive system is not well adapted to the consumption of meat. The detrimental effects of food additives have also been discussed. An increase in income in developing countries has caused a shift in consumption towards more meat, eggs and dairy products and towards Western-style diets. Consumers may have to change their eating habits to foster a healthier lifestyle.

John Joshua

Chapter 5. The Obesogenic Environment

Abstract

The causes of overweight and obesity may be the consequence of genetic and metabolic factors, but in most cases, the causes are behavioural. It will be argued that the main contributory factor towards overweight and obesity is an obesogenic environment. The obesogenicity of an environment is caused by all the influences within a given environment which consists of all the factors, such as the sociocultural origin, socio-demographics, living environment and the psychological factors that contribute towards obesity. Treatment of obesity often fails because it largely ignores such obesogenic factors. Individuals who are embedded within such an environment find it difficult to exercise their true free choice and exercise their individual responsibility as they are constantly exposed to an obesogenic environment.

John Joshua

Chapter 6. Behavioural Causes of Overeating and Lifestyle

Abstract

Over the years sedentary activities increased while physical activities declined. Obesity has now progressed to an alarming rate while public policies to control obesity have remained behind. Changes in lifestyle promote new types of food, snacking habit, and eating out. An increasing sedentary lifestyle creates the demand for new types of food, consisting of a high-fat, high-calorie diet; hence, individuals’ lifestyle has changed and so has their waistline with detrimental consequences to their health; mostly adopted by younger individuals. Thus, there is a gene–environment interaction for some, but a pure environment effect for most. There is a trade-off between the present fulfilment of short-term gratification and future well-being as a consequence of their increasing obesity.

John Joshua

Chapter 7. The Psychological Foundation of Overeating and Behavioural Economics

Abstract

This chapter discusses the psychological foundation of overeating. It is argued that obesity and overweight are caused by hedonic rather than homeostatic hunger. Overeating may be the consequence of individuals’ response to external cues, especially as provided by an obesogenic environment. The use of comfort foods to overcome stress has also been explained. Economic transformation may also be stressful for some individuals and so may lead to greater obesity and overweight. The increase of income in China also has led to a change in dietary patterns which has been explained using the Engel curve. An argument for the integration between psychology and economics through behavioural economics has been made as it provides a greater understanding of individuals’ departure from the rational decision model.

John Joshua

Chapter 8. The Consequences of Obesity: Health, Unhappiness and Quality of Life

Abstract

The different diseases which are caused by obesity and their effects have been described. Obesity is seen here largely as the consequence of overeating which creates numerous medical and psychological complications. It will be explained why individuals of lower SES are more affected by diseases caused by obesity. The relationship between obesity and unhappiness has also been explained as well as how it will affect individuals’ quality of life. As psychological distress is related to quality of life, socioeconomic disadvantage and obesity, it may result in maladaptive coping strategies. Obesity may cause a vicious cycle when it results in an unhealthy lifestyle from infancy onwards, so that obesity reduces health-related quality of life.

John Joshua

Chapter 9. The Environmental Effects of Overconsumption

Abstract

Human food consumption and agricultural practices have caused biodiversity to decline. Presently, agriculture is the biggest user of fresh water and is also a major contributor to pollution. Much of greenhouse emission is caused by the agricultural sector as well. The present overexploitation of resources is not sustainable so that policies have to be introduced to reverse present environmental deterioration; hence, a change in agricultural practices has become essential. Agricultural degradation of the land reduces agricultural productivity, so that as the yield declines it leads to further increase in land use for agriculture and therefore greater deforestation. A change in diets from meat towards vegetables would reduce obesity as well as land degradation.

John Joshua

Chapter 10. The Politics of Corporate and Social Responsibility

Abstract

Companies have a corporate and social responsibility, which extends to the safety of the products which a corporation sells, as well as the prevention of deception; for example, through false advertisements. Even though food corporations are not responsible for individual consumers’ behaviour, they could be responsible for their own applied ethics. CSR may be compromised as the food and beverage industries are large pressure groups which may interfere in the political decision-making process. It is also argued that self-regulation of the food and beverage industry would be largely ineffective as their aim is to maximize profits so that there is little reason for them to support a viable health policy which would reduce the sales of unhealthy products.

John Joshua

Chapter 11. The Prevention and Treatment of Obesity

Abstract

The cause of obesity is multidisciplinary so that to reduce obesity requires multidisciplinary solutions. Government intervention may be required to prevent the increase of obesity; for example, the marketing of unhealthy products could be legally constrained. A population which is obese will incur higher costs of healthcare than a leaner population. The costs of obesity and its associated diseases can be largely prevented, although prevention is more difficult in the case when obesity is the consequence of a predetermined genetic disorder, which however only affects a relatively small proportion of obesity-related cases. Prevention is often undertaken to prevent an increase in obesity rather than to prevent obesity from occurring. Generally, people begin to think about reducing obesity once it has already occurred.

John Joshua

Chapter 12. Government Intervention in the Market and Rational Choice

Abstract

To facilitate the operation of the market, the right information of the products, including a description of the ingredients and any possible harm that their consumption may cause could be provided. As food corporations are not providing all the information to enable consumers to make adequate rational choices, government legislative intervention may be called for so that the required information is provided. An emphasis on diet as the main cause of obesity and overweight does not reduce an individual’s responsibility, but may educate the public of the major cause of obesity. Revenue collected from imposed taxes on advertising which promotes unhealthy food could be earmarked to pay for education about obesity and future medical and other social costs arising because of obesity and overweight.

John Joshua

Chapter 13. Economic Remedies and the Reduction of Obesity

Abstract

The advantages of legislations to reduce obesity have been discussed, especially as it applies to all corporations equally, so that no corporation can claim a competitive disadvantage. Regulations may be required to reduce the external social costs of obesity. Various economic remedies have been discussed. Tax revenue gained from such corporations could be used to overcome the social costs caused by obesity; for example, a tax on sugar or fat content could be introduced; or the expense of advertising of such products may be disallowed as a company expense for income tax purposes. Why the imposition of such a tax may not be necessarily regressive has also been explained. The effect of advertising together with various marketing techniques has also been discussed.

John Joshua

Chapter 14. Conclusion: Towards an Integrated HealthHealth Policy

Abstract

In conclusion, it is argued that a coordinated and integrated health policy is important. The health of people is the net consequence of their social, economic, physical, environmental as well as emotional circumstances, so that an integrated approach is essential. Psycho-social, economic and environmental factors have to be understood before proper remedies for behavioural diseases can be devised. Remedies for people’s poor health as a consequence of obesity therefore ought to have multifactorial solutions as the causes of overweight and obesity are multifactorial. The supply of food is determined by various factors and so is the demand for such food; especially the demand side requires a greater understanding of the products and their impact on people’s health.

John Joshua

Backmatter