The Impact of Populism on European Institutions and Civil Society

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. The Impact of Populism on the European Union: ‘The People’ and the Brussels Bubble

   Paolo Cossarini, Carlo Ruzza, Carlo Berti

   Abstract

   The introductory chapter places the book in the context of the literature on populism and European studies. It serves to sketch the multiple issues and the burning questions that the rise of populism has unwrapped for scholars and practitioners at national and international level. More specifically, it delves into the matter of the impact of populism on European institutions and civil society, setting out the idea of the Brussels bubble as a key aspect in its understanding. By presenting the empirical and normative implication of populism for the EU politics, this chapter explains the relevance of a debate involving academics and practitioners. It then offers an overview of the sections and chapters.

3. The European Union Facing the Populist Wave

   1. Frontmatter

   2. The Populist-Eurosceptic Mix: Conceptual Distinctions, Ideational Linkages and Internal Differentiation

      Emanuele Massetti

      Abstract

      Although populism is a political phenomenon that originated out of Europe and emerged long before the start of European integration, in the post-World War II European context, it has developed in conjunction with Euroscepticism. Actually, since the creation of the European Union (EU) in the early 1990s, the two phenomena have gradually come to coincide. Nowadays, with few exceptions, all populist parties are also Eurosceptic and vice versa. This coincidence, far from being casual, can be explained by the core features of the populist (thin-centred) ideology and by the nature of both the integration process and the EU governance. Indeed, while populism has been commonly defined as an anti-elitist ideology, European integration and the EU system of governance are widely seen as quintessentially elitist. Under these conditions, opposition to/in the EU tends to be inherently populist. Nonetheless, this ‘populist/Eurosceptic compound’ can manifest itself in rather different shapes, depending on the types of populism (inclusive vs. exclusive) and the types of Euroscepticism (hard vs. soft) that are adopted by individual parties. The chapter highlights both conceptual and empirical overlaps between populism and Euroscepticism, also referring to intermediated concepts, such as ‘national sovereignty’ and ‘economic nationalism’, that work as traits d’union between the two phenomena.

   3. Populism and European Institutions: A Historical Perspective

      Roberto Santaniello

      Abstract

      Adopting a historical perspective, this chapter analyses how the European institutions have reacted to populism over the last ten years. From the first timid attitudes towards populist movements, till the new political agenda adopted by the von der Leyen Commission, the chapter addresses the political initiatives developed in order to give concrete answers to European citizens. Similarly, it critically examines how the European Parliament has gradually changed under the growing influence of populist politics, until the European elections of 2019. Major elements of analysis are the referendum on Brexit, the discussion on rule of law in Poland and Hungary, the migration crisis, and the environmental crisis.

4. The Impact of Populism on European Institutions

   1. Frontmatter

   2. The Discursive Construction of Migration and Democracy in the European Parliament: A Model of Reciprocal Influence Between Populists and Non-populists Through Polarization and Fragmentation

      Carlo Berti

      Abstract

      Based on a content and frame analysis of European parliamentary debates and other documents (e.g. press releases), this chapter explores the discursive construction of the EU and its main issues (in particular, the migration crisis and the wave of nationalism) in the European Parliament during the 2014–2019 term. Populist and non-populist discourses are analysed and compared. While populists’ division of the world into two antagonistic and homogeneous groups (the good people and the corrupt élite), and non-populist application of a “cordon sanitaire”, suggest a dynamic of polarization, it is argued that the discursive construction of populism and anti-populism is much more nuanced. Populists and anti-populists reciprocally influence their discourses, generating polarization, but also a certain degree of fragmentation inside the two blocks. In particular, a shift of non-populists towards populist arguments (modified and adapted) can be seen, as well as populists’ strategic use of anti-populist arguments in the institutional context of the European Parliament. The potential political implications of these dynamics are discussed.

   3. The Politicisation of the European Union and the Role of the European Parliament: Opportunities, Risks and Limitations

      Markus Warasin

      Abstract

      Politicisation of the EU has become an important subject in debates about the future of the European governance. This chapter addresses the unprecedented politicisation-push that the EU has been experiencing through the emergence of sovereignty, identity and solidarity conflicts in the context of the poly-crises—from negative referenda outcomes to the global financial and economic crisis as well as against the backdrop of the migration crisis. The share of votes for parties opposed to EU integration has steadily increased over the last decade, while many Europeans are getting disenchanted of the Union and distrustful of its institutions and policy-makers. At the same time tension between the national and the European level are rising. Euroscepticism—in all its forms, from moderate to extremist—is no longer a fringe phenomenon but a political reality. It has become one of the most striking developments in modern European politics, and for the coming years it is here to stay. The chapter focuses on the European Parliament as a highly politicised arena where political groups are the main agents and where most conflicts are fought along the lines of the parliamentary groups. Particular importance is drawn to intra-group cohesion and inter-group coalition which are key tactical considerations in a politically competitive environment like the EP.

   4. The European Parliament’s Treatment of Religion in Times of Populism

      Alberta Giorgi

      Abstract

      Religious diversity is one of the main targets of populist forces, and EU institutions report that Islamophobia and, more broadly, unfair treatment on the ground of religion or belief are both increasing. This chapter analyses the impact of populism on the European Parliament by focusing on the case of religion and religion-related topics. Considering that no specific policy directly addresses religion, impact will be analysed by focusing on how the European Parliament discursively engages with religion, in order to understand whether populism is an issue with respect to religious freedom and diversity, and how the European Parliament’s discourse articulates the relationships between religion and gender issues. Objects of specific analysis are the EU parliament plenaries; the activities of the intergroup on Freedom of Religion or Belief and Religious Tolerance; and the EU Parliament external communication on Twitter.

   5. The European Commission and Reactions to the ‘Populist Turn’ in Anti-discrimination Policy

      Carlo Ruzza

      Abstract

      In recent years, the European Commission has reacted in several ways to the widespread impact of populist formations, and their successes at EU and member states level. This chapter identifies and examines the reactions of Commissioners who have spoken publicly about this impact and notes how it challenges the European project. It also examines the reactions to populism at lower levels in the Commission’s hierarchy. It studies these reactions through a text analysis of Commission documents and argues that Commission personnel have perceived the successes of populists as a direct attack against the European project, which they generally wholeheartedly share. The chapter explores the reasons why, despite a strong commitment to ‘European Values’, the Commission has not been successful in opposing populism. It argues that this is due to two reasons. Analysis shows that the populist threat to European values is mainly defined in terms of the values of inclusion, that is, the rights of migrants and other discriminated-against groups, but migration policy is an area that is scarcely institutionalised in the EU. Therefore, populism has not fundamentally threatened the European project, but nor has it helped the EU. However, populist views on the rule of law are potentially more threatening and at the same time more promising in terms of enabling EU initiatives.

5. The Impact of Populism on European Civil Society

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Facing the Threat of Populism: How the European Commission Can Reconnect with Citizens

      Assya Kavrakova

      Abstract

      Populism may threaten the foundations of European democracy. Starting from the assumption that the European project has the potential to tackle populism thanks to its international nature, this chapter provides suggestions about how EU institutions should act to be perceived as part of the solution, rather than—as claimed by many populists—part of the problem. In contrast to populist forces that disrespect rule of law, diversity of opinions and democratic checks and balances, the role of the European Commission as guardian of the Treaties is pivotal in ensuring that ‘the European way of life’ measures up to the spirit of the EU legislation. The Commission should monitor the rule of law EU-wide, foster the development of a European public space for civic education on active citizenship, EU fundamental rights and values, and increase EU communication and engagement in local communities, especially in non-metropolitan areas. This could help overcome the feeling of abandonment and disconnect among citizens and thus reduce the scope for populism.

   3. Civil Society as Anti-Populism? Countering the Populist Threat and Campaigning for Change in the Discourse of EU-Level CSOs

      Paolo Cossarini

      Abstract

      Populism emerges on the terrain of modern civil society, and yet it ultimately entails existential risks for civil society’s fundamentals: populism’s essentialist stance betrays a deep tension with the principle of plurality upon which civil society and liberal democracy are founded. This chapter focuses on the work of EU-Level CSOs, which have emerged as key actors in the anti-discrimination fight at the communitarian level over the last years. Their work involves campaigning tasks such as mapping discriminatory acts, re-framing of public discourse, and lobbying at the European level. Drawing on a document and text analysis, the chapter explores the work of EU-based NGOs and asks to what extent they build a counter-narrative, alternative to the exclusionary discourse implemented especially by right-wing politics. To this end, this chapter focuses on the main EU-Level CSOs working on gender, race, religion, and migration.

   4. The Interaction Among Populism, Civil Society Organisations and European Institutions

      Pierluigi Brombo

      Abstract

      Populism highly affects civil society organisations (CSOs), alongside other factors to which it adds up and with which it mixed up, such as economic crisis, environmental sensitivity, new economic models, digitalisation, distrust in politics and in public authorities. This chapter explores the interaction between populism and CSOs along several dimensions: firstly, CSOs’ influence on politics and on governments which include populist forces; secondly, the populist challenge to the values underlying CSOs; thirdly, the creation, facilitated by digitalisation, of a direct channel between citizens and public authorities, that questions and apparently nullifies the intermediary role of CSOs. EU institutions seem to encourage this latter tendency, by exploring new avenues of direct and deliberative democracy and by funding CSOs more as service than advocacy providers. Yet, CSOs retain a crucial role as a transmission belt between individuals and public authorities, as proven by several studies. They also play a key political role in articulating and aggregating citizens’ needs, demands and positions.

   5. Europeanize to Resist: Civil Society vs. Populism

      Luisa Chiodi

      Abstract

      In recent years, civil society organizations have received strong public criticisms that have led to a decline in public trust all over Europe. This chapter examines cases where a vibrant civil society at national level in Italy struggles to respond to populist political elites. Among the reasons for such difficulties, the findings highlight a scarce knowledge of the European decision-making process and a limited awareness of the space for political participation at EU. Unprepared to face the current anti-civil society turn with adequate tools, Italian civil society is not yet in the condition to fully make use of what could be named the Helsinki mechanism—that is, the idea that emerged with the experience of the dissidence movement in Central Europe with the CSCE’s process, where civil society used transnational spaces to advance democracy at home. On the other hand, the chapter shows a few cases of success, such as in the case of the reform of the Dublin regulation; NGO proactivism in favour of the Istanbul convention; LGBT legal activism to obtain civil unions. Moreover, the chapter shows the creation of new transnational spaces for civil society from the grassroots up to the European level, their limits, and their potentials

   6. Conclusions: Bursting the Brussels Bubble—How the Impact of Populism Can Be Exploited to Make the European Union Better

      Carlo Berti, Carlo Ruzza, Paolo Cossarini

      Abstract

      This chapter links the idea of the Brussels bubble to the impact of populism on the EU institutions. Setting out the empirical and normative results of the book, this chapter puts together into a coherent narrative the main points of each section and chapter. It offers a picture of the current situation regarding the impact of populism on the EU, outlining future challenges, and suggesting potential developments for the EU politics and civil society, based on research and reflections offered in the book.

6. Backmatter