The Interconnected Arctic — UArctic Congress 2016

The University of the Arctic assembles a large group of northern hemisphere scientific institutions with a huge research capacity due to being the home of a large number of junior scientists with a high potential for the future. The vagueries of the Cenozoic Arctic ice cover history have the potential of contributing to our understanding of future environments on the northern hemisphere. This may have its implications of the socio-economic conditions for the societies inhabiting high northern latitude land areas. Climatic conditions during the young geologic past were sometimes warmer than today; the climate has a „memory“ and such conditions might offer analogues what is in store for the future for all of us.

Polar Urals as one of target regions of Global Observation Research Initiative in Alpine Environments (GLORIA) comprises a suite of four summits, representing an elevation gradient of alpine vegetation patterns. The sampling areas cover the summits from the tops down to the 10 m contour line and are divided into eight sections. For each section, a complete list of vascular plants and herpetobiotic arthropods was collected and resurveyed. In the period from 2001 untill 2015, the species numbers steadily increased and the total surplus of vascular plants was up to 13 species on separate summit. A general decrease in the total cover of vascular plants and changes in percentage cover of the dominant species was recorded on the permanent plots; certain species of herbs decreased and certain shrub species increased. Among the dominant species of invertebrates, ground beetles and millipedes were replaced by click beetles and spiders. After 14 years the altitudinal index calculated for vascular plants gave an average upward movement of 13.6 m, that is more pronounced than in Northern and Southern Urals. The thermophilization of the alpine plant communities of Polar Urals was found equal to 9.3% of one vegetation belt. The temperature sums obtained from data loggers demonstrate the slight tendency of increase, especially for the lower summits.

The features of natural recovery and artificial restoration of quarries in northern regions of Western Siberia is analysed in this article. The effectiveness of restoration is compared with natural revegetation results. It is shown that the development of restoration projects requires a comprehensive consideration of environmental conditions. General recommendations for restoration of quarry areas are formulated.

Main features of biogeographical regionalization were developed in previous notes of authors. In this chapter a review on the new information on large marine ecosystems is given based on strong theoretical and empirical material including own research. The originality of method of a research consists that at the description of the sea basin (ecoregion) the three-rank system of units considering zonal, vertical and azonal distinctions of the environment which influence the distribution of marine inhabitants is used. The principles of the regionalization of hierarchical structure are discussed on the example of the Barents Sea.

Pest insect population dynamics are species specific and complex due to nonlinearities and interactions among different trophic levels. Consequently, the impacts of climate change on pests are also species specific and they are often difficult to predict. However, there are some clear examples of increasing forest pest risks due to a warming climate. The damage caused by the Eurasian spruce bark beetle has recently increased in Finland as a consequence of more frequent storm damage and longer growing seasons. In a warming climate, timely salvage and sanitation cuttings will be needed to guarantee the sustainability of the forestry. Several defoliating pests overwinter in the egg stage. Warmer winters may not kill the eggs and, therefore, the incidence of outbreaks is predicted to increase in the northern and continental areas. The most important societal implications will be due to Geometrids attacking subarctic mountain birch forests. Together with heavy reindeer grazing, Geometrids reduce the resilience of the ecosystem and they are threatening the sustainability of local livelihoods.

Northern countries are committing themselves to large cuts in the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions within the next decades. For example, the EU has agreed to cut down its GHG emissions by 40% by 2030. In a similar manner, Norway has announced commitments to reduce its GHG emissions by 40% by 2030 compared to 1990. Achievement of these emission reduction targets will mean shifting the balance of energy consumption in the region towards renewable sources such as wind, solar and biomass. There are large forest resources in the Nordic countries. Moreover, as a result of warming climate, the boreal forest line is expected to move northwards, displacing 11–50% of the tundra by boreal forests within the next 100 years. Increasing the use of bioenergy can provide emission reductions while also simultaneously help to reduce regional reliance on fossil fuels. On the other hand, increased mobilisation of forest biomass for energy decreases the growth of forest carbon sink and may in some cases even turn it into a carbon source.In the present chapter, the use of forest bioenergy to ensure energy security and climate change mitigation is discussed. In addition, conclusions are drawn on how to simultaneously enhance energy security and resource efficiency, and contribute to emission reduction.

The study was conducted to determine the distribution of accumulation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the ecosystem components and environment in the Arctic regions of Russia. A GIS software was used to obtain data from regions and locations for which POP concentrations exceeded threshold values or remained within the normal range. The geospatial analysis was carried out for sea water, sea-bed sediments, and marine and terrestrial ecosystem components. The accumulation coefficients of POPs in the ecosystem components and environment were calculated. The obtained data analysis gave an opportunity to demonstrate the accumulation of POPs in the ecosystems. By data modeling it was determined that there is an exponential character of the POP accumulation in the components of Arctic ecosystems and environment.

Climate warming has been and will continue to be faster in the Arctic compared to the other domains of the world, which generates major challenges for human adaptation. Among others, the development of socio-economic infrastructure and strategic planning requires long-term projections of water availability and extreme hydrological events. In this context, it is preferable that the projections of river runoff should be performed statistically, allowing the evaluation of economical risks and costs for hydraulic structures, which are connected to changes in hydrological extremes. In this study, the hydrological model MARCS (MARcov Chan System) is suggested as a tool to simulate the parameters of probability density functions (PDFs) of maximal runoff or peak flow, based on climate projections of the Representative Concentration Pathways. Following that, the PDFs of the maximal runoff were constructed within the Pearson Type III distributions to estimate the runoff values of a small exceedance probability. To evaluate the risks and costs of a long-term investment based on the future projections of river maximal discharge of 1 % probability, simple calculations were performed for the new bridge over the Nadym River as an example.

Polar air outbreaks from the Arctic can be categorically considered as extreme weather events because monthly temperature anomalies both in the Arctic and middle latitudes may exceed 20 degrees. In this study, it was found out that both the North Atlantic Oscillation and the Arctic Oscillation indices are not sensitive to the two completely different types of polar air outbreaks in terms of distinguishing them. The physical origins of polar air outbreaks were highlighted, and their classification was carried out. Based on this classification, a conclusion about the existence of the North Siberian anomaly was made. According to its many features, this anomaly can be treated as one more action center of the atmosphere. This finding has allowed us to introduce a new climate index, which is called as the Atlantic Arctic Oscillation index. This index allows us to identify the two types of polar air outbreaks with a high level of recognition probability.An interrelation between the new climate index and temperatures in the investigated regions was analyzed. Summer season in the middle latitudes is becoming colder, while winter season in the Arctic is becoming warmer, and the Atlantic Arctic Oscillation index shows it.One of the most important reasons of Arctic sea ice melting is related to the domination for the past 20 years of the second type of polar air outbreaks that cause high positive air temperature anomalies in the eastern sector of the Arctic. In contrast, during 1960s the first type of arctic air outbreaks prevailed.

The Arctic continental shelf is a promising area for oil and gas exploration and mining. Extremely harsh environmental conditions affect the work of engineering geologists, whose work is essential for building and construction of pipelines and rigs for the petroleum industry. With the massive interest and growth of fossil fuels offshore production, more and more geotechnical issues are to be solved. The necessity of studying marine sediments becomes clear when the specific physical and mechanical properties of bottom soils in the Arctic sea shelf are taken into consideration. Certain geological aspects determine what marine soils comprise and how they behave under loads exerted by a construction. Traditional methods of measuring deformation and strength parameters are reviewed, compared and contrasted by their feasibility of using to study marine sediments from offshore the Arctic. A substantial range of published studies has been analyzed and the findings summarized to provide potential solutions. The article stresses the importance of proper geotechnical survey and collaboration between industries and environmental scientists to achieve best results in studying the Arctic and building long-term human capacity alongside with protection of its vulnerable environment.

Good health and well-being is one of the most important sustainability goals of today. Unfortunately the goal faces many challenges that show an uneven distribution of health improvements, and of life-expectancy. This is a global problem, but also a specific threat to vast parts of the Arctic. Furthermore there is a strong correlation between climate change and health risks. On top of these challenges are disfavoured indigenous peoples, globally and in the Arctic. This chapter deals with health encounters in the North, with a focus on the Swedish health care organization, Sami health and research efforts.

Scenarios are neither predictions nor forecasts, but explore a range of possible futures. Socio-economic scenarios enable the consideration of different uncertainties related to the future and may improve decision-making by enabling the development and analysis of robust decisions. The development of socio-economic scenarios in the Arctic has been a fairly popular topic for scenario analyses. This study reviews ten selected socio-economic scenarios developed for the Arctic region that differ in structure and geographic focus. The analysis shows that the key uncertainties are fairly similar across the different scenarios. The key uncertainties are mainly related to governance or management and natural resources, but recently the uncertainty and importance of political factors have risen. Climate change is included in all scenarios, but its contribution to the future development of the region and its perceived uncertainty varies depending on the scenario.

Effect of climate change on the populations of commercial fish is widely recognized. However, this recognition is currently insufficient and climate parameters are not incorporated into fishery forecasting models. Major fisheries of northern Russia targeting Alaska pollock, Pacific salmon in the North Pacific, and Atlantic cod in the Barents Sea are now in a good shape and showing record catches. This review discusses how climate change should be taken into account in the management of northern fish stocks in Russia. Given that climate conditions are currently favorable for these fisheries, it is difficult to assess the effectiveness of management system and predict how it will behave under less favorable climatic situation. Climate change might play a positive role in short-term perspective, but its role may be even negative in long-term perspective because of the possibility that the management system might lose its effectiveness in favorable conditions. To reduce risks for commercial fish stocks, it is necessary to incorporate an ecosystem-based approach in the management. One opportunity for that is provided by the program of ecological certification of Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) which became well established in Russia during the last decade. Without any support from the state, participants of the MSC program educate fishers, fishery managers, and governmental officers towards the use of ecosystem-based approach, specially accounting for the effect of climate change on northern Russian fisheries.

In Russia the right to traditional use of lands, biological and other resources such as reindeer pastures, harvesting fauna, fish, non-wood resources of forest including wild plants is declared with due regard to the priorities of indigenous peoples. However, in practice the northern indigenous communities can hardly get an access to their traditional lands. They cannot become owners of hunting lands, fishing areas, cannot obtain long-term licenses for the wildlife use rights, quotes for fishing. Due to many reasons the northern indigenous peoples are not able to compete with major industrial companies. As a consequence, the indigenous peoples do not conduct traditional economic activities, nor do they preserve their traditional lifestyle, values and language. Alongside with guaranteed rules concerning indigenous rights, in the Russian legislation there is a gap in proper regulations of traditional territories use. In the current period of intensive industrial development of the Arctic the legal rules should be revised and supplemented with effective mechanisms of granting and protection of traditional territories and activities of the northern indigenous peoples.

Arctic journey was an experiential exhibition series that was realized as a part of HumanSee research project at the University of Lapland in 2016. The exhibition series seeked to experiment the multisensory ways of presenting personal experiences in the Arctic and to invite exhibition visitors into the co-creation of the installations. By exploring the exhibition formats, this article asks what is the role of co-design process in the construction of an arctic experience. Two of the exhibition cases included co-creation sessions, where the creation of the arctic experience was taken into a closer experimentation through the co-design process. Through qualitative content analysis and discourse analysis, the research findings suggest that arctic experience, even when not connected to personal experiences in the actual arctic region, is a reflection of the personal understanding of the marginal context that brings the stories of an individual into the core of the experience.

In Alaska, alternative transport modes to cars and other motorized, petrol powered vehicles are gaining in importance due to increasing urbanization and as adaptive responses to risks of infrastructural damage to transportation networks in facing the climate change. Bicycling functions as a transportation practice in response to increasing infrastructure disruptions, offering a strategy towards sustainable and resilient means of transportation in the times of global climate change and its associated challenges. Changing weather conditions and demographic changes lead to the necessity to establish more adapted infrastructures. The use of the bicycle hereby offers a suitable mode of transport in Arctic and Subarctic areas. New technologies such as fat bikes make bicycling throughout the winter season possible. The combination of the theoretical concepts of sustainability and resilience bears the potential to foster concrete solutions and action strategies for policy makers with respect to infrastructural challenges in the Arctic.

The article presents results of human capital status in the Russian Arctic and proposed measures to improve the situation. The main method for improvement is seen as the popularization of in-demand occupation list through federal web-portal to increase the balance between education system output and the labour market needs. Development of the Russian Arctic human capital is a strategic priority for increasing economy’s competitiveness in terms of globalization as well as considering raising interest and attention to this topic. There is an objective contradiction in the Russian Arctic development: it is expensive to explore and develop the Arctic, but the Arctic is a territory full of possibilities and resources. Today’s priority is the economic development. This will lead to development of labour market and to social aspects progress. As a result, the severe life conditions in the Arctic and health deterioration of population could be improved.

The research presented here examines the impact of wages on employment and migration in the High North regions of Russia. The unique features of the labour markets of these territories include compensative differentials and specific labour protection legislation. It makes the labour supply in the High North of Russia more flexible and labour demand more constrained compared with the rest of the country. Using the regional panel data provided by the Federal State Statistics Service (Rosstat) for the High North regions of Russia from 2005 to 2013, fixed effects models for dependent variables such as the number of employees, number of unemployed and net migration was used to analyse the impact of wages on migration. The obtained estimates demonstrate that wage significantly and positively affects interregional migration to the northern regions. Growth of wages attracts immigrants from other regions of the country and eventually leads to lower wages and higher unemployment in the northern territories. The main findings of this research can be used in the implementation of social policy in the High North regions of Russia.

Research on bullying and harassment in Scandinavia has been going on for several decades, and is appearing in new frameworks and forms since the new categories of “cyber-harassment” or “cyber-bullying” have been introduced. Bullying is a phenomenon of great worry, as it seems to affect children and adolescents both on short and long term. A questionnaire on cyber-harassment was designed in this study, and answered by pupils and their parents and teachers, at five schools in the city of Tromsø, Norway. The questionnaire included a section of questions concerning traditional forms of harassment and bullying, as well as questions on quality of life (QoL), and the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The main research questions were: (1) What is the prevalence of the three classical types of bullying and cyberbullying; (2) Are there gender or age differences; (3) What percentage of children bullied classically were also cyberbullied; (4) How and to what extend did those that were bullied also suffer a lower quality of life. The main novel contribution of this study to the ongoing research is that students who reported being cyber-harassed or cyberbullied, also reported significantly lower QoL-scores than their non-harassed peers.

Many issues about teacher evaluation have been discussed in Russia where evaluation procedures are constantly under review as the teachers seek continuous improvement. This chapter contributes to this discussion, first, by adding a wider international perspective, secondly, by exploring the experiences of participants (observers, in-service teachers) and, finally, by drawing on research related to teacher evaluation. The authors present the outcomes of the survey conducted among teachers in Russia’s Sakha Republic (Yakutia) and in the Republic of Kazakhstan. The research objectives were: evaluation of the adaptation process in professional and personal development of in-service teachers caused by changes in education system of Russia and the development of basic professional competences of teachers. The study aimed to explore the views of teachers and analyses of teacher evaluation via a mixed-method approach. The rationale for this study was born out of the disillusionment with teacher evaluation. Therefore, it was concluded that existing evaluation practices may need to be examined to see if they serve the best interests of teachers.

While the psychological well-being of Antarctic crews has been investigated previously, Arctic crews have received little attention. Antarctic stressors include the permanent darkness of polar night, cramped quarters and harsh weather conditions which demand that the crews work together to survive. These stressors are also present for Arctic crews with the addition of dangerous polar bears. In this study, these psychological stressors were explored at the Polish Polar Station, Svalbard. Nine crew members three of whom were women, took part in the study. They filled in the Profile of Mood States (POMS) and the Symptom Checklist 90-Revised (SCL-90-R) after their arrival, at equinox, during polar night, in spring and during the midnight sun. Depression and hostility were highest in the spring following the isolation of polar night. Vigor reached its lowest point in spring and remained low until mission completion. Confusion continued to decline throughout the mission. The Polish crew adapted by monitoring their feelings to work together and ensure survival. Up until and during the polar night, negative feelings were low. Following the isolation period, depression and hostility increased while vigor declined. This suggests adaptation paradigm wherein the participants stopped to monitor their own feelings as closely after the polar night.

The Arctic is changing; it is ever changing in many social, cultural, economic and environmental ways. This chapter will look specifically at tourism in the Arctic: how has it changed? And how might it change in the future? Since the International Polar Year (IPY) in 2007–2008 there has been a rise of interest in tourism from academia, industry and local communities. Many authors have provided a look into the “deep” past of tourism development; with a number of books and article coming out around 2010, and some have offered thoughts on the future. This chapter will gaze further into the future, to the year 2030. What might the growth in tourism look like, based on the trajectory since 2008 or 2010? What will be the priorities for tourism growth or tourism research in the region?

The Yukon Territory, in Canada’s western Arctic, has tremendous potential for tourism. The territory has abundant natural beauty, and a historical mystique that naturally draws people to the destination. The Yukon has already established itself as an adventure tourism destination for activities such as paddling (canoeing, kayaking and rafting) and dog-sledding. However, mountain biking is a new segment of the Yukon tourism industry. A greater understanding of tourism in the Arctic can be developed through an examination of the destination attributes that draw mountain bike tourists to the Yukon.

This chapter discusses the potential of design research and education practice to contribute to Polar/Arctic tourism studies. With the geographical reference to the Russian Far North, it is explored what involves in being a human in severe environmental conditions, and what kind of design, clothing, dwelling, transportation it fosters. As a key argument, a perspective is developing of the arctic tourism as an embodied way of (short-term) living in the extreme environment. The discussion is continued by outlining the design approach to Arctic tourism development and based on existing variety of tourism resources in the Russian North two modes of their representation by design – static and dynamic – are suggested. Each mode is further illustrated with a case study of design projects conducted at the Arctic Design School, Yekaterinburg, Russia. To conclude, this chapter offers new ways of understanding and using design as a tool to respond to challenges and opportunities that today’s Arctic uncovers not only for tourism, but also for other sectors of Arctic-based and oriented industry.

Emergencies on large passenger ships in the remote High North may lead to a mass rescue operation with a heavy strain on the emergency preparedness systems of the Arctic countries. This study focuses on the need for competencies related to large-scale Search and Rescue operations (SAR operations) amongst the shipping companies, vessels and governments involved. A SAR operation is the activity related to finding and rescuing people in distress. Several international standards, in particular the conventions by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), provide direction for education and training of seafarers and rescue staff. This study elaborates on the operational competence requirements for key personnel involved in large scale SAR operations. Findings from real SAR incidents and exercises provide in-depth understanding on the operational challenges. The chapter gives directions for competence programs, beyond obligatory international standards, and recommendations for further research.

The IMO Polar Code states that equipment and systems providing survival support for passengers/crew should have adequate thermal protection for a minimum of 5 days. Based on participant workshops where suppliers, regulators, users and academia were present, the following three functionality requirements were identified as essential for survival: Maintaining cognitive abilities; No uncontrollable body shivering and Functionality of extremities.Following the participant workshops, a field trial was conducted in Wood Fjord, Northern Svalbard, during the last week of April 2016. The goal of the trial was to identify the gaps in functionality provided by life-saving equipment currently approved by SOLAS and the functionality required to comply with the minimum requirement of 5 days survival, according to the IMO Polar Code.The trial demonstrated that when utilizing standard SOLAS approved equipment, compliance with the functional Polar Code requirement of protection from hypothermia cannot be expected beyond 24 h of exposure.

Industrial development in the Arctic enhances the potential risk of accidents occurring under severe conditions. Detailed knowledge of the physical environment and understanding of risk reduction methods are necessary for technical experts and young specialists planning to work in companies dealing with the Arctic. The Arctic is a place of close contact between many countries, where harsh and fragile environment demands the most advanced technology for sustainable development and international collaboration to ensure safety of industrial activity. The SITRA (Safety of Industrial Development and Transportation Routes in the Arctic, 2015–2018) project focuses on organizing an international research and educational network of High North experts for joint investigation and teaching of Arctic engineering courses. SITRA is funded by the Norwegian Centre for International cooperation in Education (SIU). The project is a part of the High North Program. It continues the more than 20-year-long Norwegian-Russian collaboration in the field of Ice Engineering and expands it overseas by means of students and staff/professors exchange and joint field work. Canadian and US universities have also joined the team. The SITRA project multiplies the understanding and awareness of the Arctic problems through education and outreach.

Snow and ice are the key elements in winter tourism, especially in the Nordic countries. Finnish Lapland has a multitude of attractions that provide visitors unique arctic experiences in snow and ice constructed environments. In Finland, snow and ice operators and builders are usually small and medium size enterprises (SME). There is lack of knowledge on using snow and ice as construction material. This article will provide basic knowledge on using snow and ice as construction material in safe structures.

The chapter focuses on justification of the psychological safety model of oil and gas workers in the Arctic. The safety in industrial activity depends firstly not only on the employee, on his attitude toward observance of occupational safety and health regulations, but also on the personal attributes of the specialist, his subjective perceptions and effectiveness of his psychological self-regulation. The study was conducted at an oil and gas facility with a watch-based method of labor organization in the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation (duration of a rotation shift is 30 days). The study involved 70 persons at the ages from 24 to 60 years (average age 38.7 ± 1.3). The methods were as follows: study of documentation, monitoring of work process, questionnaires, psycho-physiological and psychological testing, and statistical methods of data analysis. The study verified the concept of psychological safety as a mental state of a subject who has control over a set of internal and external factors of the ergatic system providing updating of internal resources of the individual for efficient professional activity on the psycho-physiological and psychological levels. As a result, the model of psychological security of oil and gas workers in the Arctic was introduced and evidence based. It includes the following components: (1) The psycho-physiological level of functional status (reduced or optimal); (2) The psychological level of functional state (emergency or economical); (3) The image of the labor object (low undifferentiated hazard assessment or high differentiated hazard assessment); (4) The perception of the subject (high undifferentiated or moderately high differentiated self-assessment); (5) The perception of the subject-object and subject-subject relations (neutral, negative, or positive). In this research, the components of psychological safety of oil and gas workers of different professional groups (operators of oil and gas, boiler operators, drivers, engineers and technical workers, maintenance specialists) in the Arctic were empirically studied and characterized. The psychological level of functional state was expressed in economical adaptive strategy mainly on the basis of results gained from the study of operators of treatment facilities and boiler houses, engineering and technical staff and maintenance staff. On the contrary, the emergency strategy was defined in the course of the study of oil and gas operators. Low psycho-physiological levels of functional states were noted among drivers and operators of treatment facilities and boiler houses. Higher rates of this component of psychological safety were found among engineering and technical personnel, oil and gas operators, as well as maintenance specialists. Among the components of psychological safety related to the mental structure of the regulation, there are no strong differences between workers belonging to one group or another, depending on job. In all occupational groups there is a predominance of a higher and more differentiated assessment of the impact of adverse factors and potential hazards during the rotation shift and moderately high self-assessments of competence. However, the composition of the subject-object and subject-subject relations shows a predominantly negative evaluation of socio-psychological environment mostly among drivers, in other groups of specialists the attitude was neutral or positive.

The following chapter examines multiple aspects of including gender perspectives in Arctic research. In the chapter I discuss the definition and understanding of the concept of gender, and then move to the concept of “intersectionality” which recognizes the important linkages between multiple identities of gender, race, ethnicity, class, age, and other social categories. I then discuss both the ways in which gender has been addressed, though still minimally, in Arctic research, as well as some of the ways in which Arctic research is itself gendered. I then discuss how gendered perspectives add important insights into understanding security, and more specifically human security, in the Arctic.

The Arctic is increasingly subject to processes of global change, presenting new challenges to Arctic peoples. As the world becomes more aware of the importance of the Arctic, the concept of Arctic risk is becoming globalised, advancing technocratic discourses and solutions that suit metropolitan (rather than Arctic) interests. Arctic peoples require knowledge, research, and resources from outside the region yet must take care to avoid economic, educational, and political neo-colonialism operating under the disguise of sustainable development. The changing Arctic, however, offers Arctic peoples new opportunities for collective action. We recommend a form of Arctic regional policymaking that works across multiple channels and levels of formality to foster genuine sustainable development that meets the needs of all Arctic peoples. Such collective action should reach across and beyond state borders, bringing together Indigenous peoples and other Arctic communities, as well as cultivating awareness of shared interests through emancipatory research and education.