The Palgrave Handbook of Peace, Conflict and Security Studies in Africa

Peace, conflict, and security studies in Africa have only recently been recognized in several African universities as an academic discipline. The studies have largely been driven by the peace practice carried out by different actors such as cultural and traditional institutions, NGO and civil society organizations, religious leaders, governments, regional bodies, and inter-governmental institutions like the African Union and United Nations agencies. However, in academia, peace, conflict, and security studies have taken an interdisciplinary approach, relying on different sciences and theories to articulate the major themes in the study. Dominant theories have been Edward Azar’s protracted social conflict theory, John Burton’s Theory of Needs and Abraham Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchy of Needs; realism, constructivism, constructionism, critical theories, greed and grievance theory, liberalism and democracy, human rights, and feminist theories. Different theories have diverse emphases on multiple aspects of society and how they affect the population. The contextual relevance of these theories is imperative. Some of these theories and concepts have not been applied critically to the African contexts or African studies in peace, conflict, and security spheres. Fundamentally, theories define the envisioned change based on diverse conceptualizations of social change. This chapter highlights different theories in African scholarship, some of which have not been included in peace, conflict, and security studies. Such theories include post-colonial theories, decolonization theories, cultural theories in traditional mechanisms of peacebuilding and conflict resolution, theory of alternative leadership deficiency; review of democracy theories and extent of their relevance for Africa; youth and women agencies’ theories; theories around Ubuntu philosophy; review of theories of change advanced by NGOs, civil society, and donors.

This paper explores the evolving landscape of Peace and Conflict Studies (PCS) in Africa, highlighting key trends and emerging themes that have shaped the discipline over recent decades. Africa continues to experience a range of conflicts, from ethnic and resource-based tensions to political and environmental struggles. The continent’s study of peace and conflict has expanded, incorporating diverse theoretical frameworks and methodologies. This chapter first examines the dominant trends in PCS, including the role of post-colonialism, structural violence, and the impact of neo-patrimonial governance systems on conflict dynamics. It also discusses integrating indigenous knowledge systems and gender-sensitive approaches in peacebuilding, emphasizing local context and inclusive participation. Emerging themes such as environmental conflicts, climate change, and the rise of violent extremism are addressed as they increasingly influence conflict trajectories across the continent. Moreover, the paper highlights the growing importance of participatory methodologies, transitional justice mechanisms, and the use of technology in conflict resolution. Through case studies and comparative analysis, this paper seeks to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of PCS in Africa while identifying gaps and future directions for research. Ultimately, it calls for a more holistic and contextually grounded approach to peacebuilding that incorporates traditional African mechanisms and global PCS innovations, ensuring sustainable and inclusive peace.

This study examines peacebuilding pedagogies to enhance peace and security in Africa, focusing on Cameroonian schools amid the Anglophone crisis. The crisis, marked by violent rebellion, has severely disrupted education and society (Egoh, A historical snapshot of the Anglophone impasse in Cameroon. Sumerianz Journal of Social Science, 3(2), 18–24, 2020). Drawing on Galtung’s, Freire’s, and Reardon’s frameworks, this research employs critical peace education theory, integrating decolonial perspectives. As Zembylas (Con-/divergences between postcolonial and critical peace education: Towards pedagogies of decolonization in peace education. Journal of Peace Education, 15(1), 1–23, 2018a) and Mbembe (Decolonizing the university: New directions. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 15(1), 29–45, 2016) argue, peace education in post-colonial contexts must incorporate subjugated knowledge from colonized peoples. Using a multiple case study approach, I conducted semi-structured interviews, observations, and document analysis in four Cameroonian schools. The logic of replication informed a cross-case analysis, leading to key recommendations: training teachers in peacebuilding and citizenship education, adopting pedagogies that foster student agency and human rights, and integrating traditional Cameroonian peacebuilding symbols into curricula. Findings indicate that the crisis stems from Cameroon’s historical mismanagement of political agreements between its English- and French-speaking regions. Marginalization and human rights violations mirror Freire’s (Pedagogy of the oppressed (30th anniversary ed). Continuum, 2000) concept of dehumanization. Additionally, violence from both government forces and separatists has created political, social, and economic instability. Peacebuilding through education can drive systemic change and reinforce sustainable peace efforts (Clarke-Habibi, Educating for intercultural dialogue, peacebuilding, constructive remembrance, and reconciliation: A toolkit for teachers in the Western Balkans, UNICEF Albania and RYCO, 2019). Effective peace education models for post-colonial African nations must integrate indigenous peacebuilding symbols and cultural knowledge. Inclusive dialogue is crucial to resolving the Anglophone crisis. As Freire (2000) asserts, dialogue is central to true liberation, fostering humanization in both leadership and resistance movements.

Whereas culture has played a significant role in fostering reconciliation in divided societies, it has inadvertently obscured the very question of reconciliation, in some instances. This chapter employs the use of the drama Silent Voices by Adong Judith to analyse how Mato Oput, an Acholi cultural peace-making ritual was inadequately employed in Northern Uganda in the aftermath of the conflict of 1987–2006. The play questions the implementation of that ritual in peace-building efforts following that war. The play depicts that in an effort to promote justice, the ritual focused on reconciliation between victims and perpetrators while neglecting the compensation aspect, and the neglect in turn had negative impact on peace. Using an arts lens, the chapter offers lessons learnt from contextual application of culture about conflict resolution and sustainable peace in Northern Uganda. Art as a medium of communication has a way of deconstructing real-life scenarios to show what works and what does not work and how this may affect societies. In regard to this chapter, the play Silent Voices helps to explain the place of Mato Oput in post-conflict Northern Uganda, as well as its negative impact on reconciliation between victims and perpetrators. Besides dealing with the gender aspect, the chapter also engages with decolonization of some concepts like justice, compensation or reparations to highlight the tension between traditional models and modern legal systems as portrayed in Silent Voices.

Many societies in Africa in transition have been employing transitional justice (TJ) mechanisms to enable them to confront the challenges of accountability for human rights abuses and other atrocities committed by past regimes. Truth commissions (TCs) have emerged as the preferred TJ approach to dealing with the past, especially in Africa, because of the restorative justice and the holistic and communal approach to conflict resolution. Since the incorporation of the offense of Crimes against Humanity in international criminal law via the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 2008, Truth Commissions formed thereafter have tended to incorporate a strong criminal justice component in their investigative mandates. As a result, truth commissions have fallen short of addressing victims’ needs and fostering reconciliation in post-conflict societies in Africa. Kenya is used as a case study to demonstrate how the local tribunal and the truth-seeking process failed to provide justice and reconcile communities. Rwanda on the other hand succeeded in decolonizing its justice system to respond to the massive challenges caused by the genocide. The study applies the Decoloniality theory to discuss valuable insights for reimagining transitional justice in ways that align more closely with African realities and aspirations. The study uses secondary data. Information about the traditional justice process and selected truth commissions has been gathered from books, journal papers, and policy documents. The paper concludes that decolonizing African justice systems through reviving traditional systems could lead to restorative justice that enables healing, reconciliation, and sustainable peace.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have played a significant role in African peacebuilding and development over many years. NGOs have reached out to some of the most marginalized places in Africa, where governments have failed to respond to the population’s needs. They have been the major drivers for peacebuilding and development at the grassroots level and have worked with different actors to build peace, promote human rights, and offer humanitarian services. In most cases, NGOs rely on external funding to implement their projects, subjecting their peace and development projects to the Western donors’ agenda, which sometimes conflicts with the population’s needs. Overreliance on external funding has also meant that NGOs cannot stay longer to accompany peace processes up to the end. This has meant that the NGOs have become “guest peacebuilders” parachuting from one location to another, one focus issue to another, driven mainly by imperatives of donor funding. Parachute peacebuilding is reflected in two perspectives: first is the temporal nature of the NGO interventions based on intermittent funding. They tend to parachute into a place to run projects for just a few weeks to a few years, creating high dependencies on the population, and once the funding is over, the project closes, and the population is left on its own. The second parachute nature of NGO peacebuilding is the constant shift from one subject matter to another, from one priority issue to another, all driven by the dictates of the donor. This implies that the population is no longer the priority beneficiary and that donors’ agenda predetermines the focus area. The chapter ends by calling for the decolonization of NGO peacebuilding to reflect the needs of the people on the ground.

Postcolonial African societies exist in paradoxes. Despite having indigenous peace and conflict resolution mechanisms, international peace professionals often assume that Africans lack the self-awareness to articulate and implement them effectively. This has resulted in a Western-dominated peacebuilding industry where African traditions are studied, interpreted and systematised through external frameworks rather than being recognised as legitimate and independent knowledge systems. This chapter critically examines how the study of African peace and conflict resolution, particularly in Southern Africa, has prioritised external validation over local agency. The development and peacebuilding discourse, often presented as supporting African stability, has instead functioned as a mechanism of control—surveilling, shaping and dictating Africa’s peace agenda. The expansion of the peace industrial complex has paradoxically coincided with the persistence of conflict, exclusion and poverty, reinforcing neo-colonial dependencies that justify the continued presence of international aid agencies. Rather than addressing the root causes of instability, global peacebuilding efforts have been diversionary, focusing on frameworks that sustain Western economic and political interests. At the same time, African political and civil society elites have embraced externally driven peacebuilding strategies, further entrenching Western dominance in Africa’s governance and security landscape. This chapter advocates for the decolonisation of peacebuilding practices, urging a shift towards African-centered solutions that empower local actors. Sustainable peace in Africa requires dismantling externally imposed narratives and recognising African agency, indigenous knowledge and self-determined approaches in conflict resolution and governance.

The psychosocial impact of conflict is a critical yet often overlooked dimension of post-conflict reconstruction. Without addressing the deep psychological scars left by violence, societies remain vulnerable to recurring cycles of unrest. This chapter argues that contextualized, culturally grounded reconciliation mechanisms, when integrated with psychosocial support, are essential for the holistic healing of conflict-affected communities. The study employs a systematic literature review (SLR) methodology, analyzing empirical research, conceptual frameworks, and theoretical literature. It examines the role of indigenous peacebuilding practices across Africa, with a particular focus on Rwanda’s Gacaca courts, Mozambique’s Magamba spirits, and Ethiopia’s Michu system. These traditional justice frameworks, underpinned by reconciliation theory in psychology, the psychology of justice theory, Afrocentrism theory, and critical indigenous theory, have demonstrated significant efficacy in restoring social justice, alleviating psychological burdens, and enabling survivors to rebuild their lives. However, the analysis highlights key limitations. While these mechanisms are effective at the inter-communal level, they often fall short in addressing broader intrastate conflicts and fail to provide adequate responses to mental health challenges such as trauma and PTSD. This chapter advocates for expanding indigenous reconciliation practices into a more comprehensive framework that integrates truth, justice, and psychosocial healing. By transcending localized belief systems and embedding these mechanisms within national peacebuilding strategies, they can contribute to long-term stability, social cohesion, and mental health resilience in post-conflict societies.

Most post independent African countries have complex political histories characterised by peace, violent conflicts, and serious human rights violations. These complex histories have led to persistence of transitional justice issues, impeding stability in societies. While regular elections are central to democratic governance, they are often contested, placing immense political pressure on social institutions like the news media. The news media are vulnerable to manipulation and cannot keep the public informed and engaged. News media and journalists often face manipulation, ownership influences, and intimidation, stifling diversity, critical reporting, and public engagement. Nevertheless, news media framing of issues influences public perception and engagement in democratic processes. The dynamic political processes in Africa and in Kenya are further reshaped by rapid changes in media and communication systems—the increasing use of online media platforms and the different ways citizens interact with available media platforms. This chapter highlights the influence of citizen media practices on political environment of peace and conflicts especially during elections. However, their influence is often overlooked in discussions about media’s role in elections and peace. The everyday citizen media practices allow grassroots to share their peace and political narratives. These practices can enhance or undermine goals for peace because of other salient social factors such as corrosive ethnic discourse and polarised public debates. In broader view, amplified grassroots’ media practices have the potential to enrich or weaken established conflict resolution systems, and the means to address common causes. This study concludes that the growing use of online media platforms by both individuals and organised groups to (co)-create and access news and participate in civic activities has significant consequences for peace. Thus, citizen media actions are contributing to knowledge production, and giving voice to the grassroots. And in the process, they play a critical role in shaping the socio-political environment, influencing both peace and conflict outcomes. Therefore, the study emphasises a critical analysis of the interplay of social processes, media access and use, and peace communication.

Modern economic theories on African developments have often underscored the significant impacts of colonial institutions in the general underdevelopment of Africa. Unfortunately, these studies rarely emphasize the significant contributions of the resilient “structures of violence” which in mimicry of colonial violence has continually sabotaged African developments. Working with the social/literary theories of mimicry, the chapter interrogates the sonic contours of colonial mercantile institutions of slavery, the importations and exploitations of firearms, and the continual mimicry of these “colonial archetypes” of violence by contemporary state and non-state actors on the African continent.

African scholarship on migration has taken a shift in recent years driven by the need to focus, re-interpret and decolonize the dynamics of internal migration by understanding the cultural norms and values that inform migratory behaviours and patterns of local communities. This chapter discusses conflict and insecurity in the pastoralist region of Karamoja located in north-eastern Uganda and considers out-migration as a product of insecurity. It argues that the underlying causes of insecurity in the region—resource-based competition, cattle raiding for commercial gain and structural political marginalization—are complex, multi-dimensional and concatenate at certain points with compounding factors, including accumulation of SALWs, inter-communal tensions, excessive force during disarmament operations, deprivation and limited array of livelihood alternatives, diminished traditional authority and land grabbing. Conflict-induced migration is a commonplace coping mechanism, either directly through forced displacement and human trafficking or indirectly—in search for better opportunities in towns within and beyond the region. The chapter recommends promotion of community-led peace initiatives based on non-violence and compensatory actions to address protracted alienation, and social and environmental injustices perpetuated against the Karimojong, hitherto.

Armed conflicts often involve multiple factions, and research has shown these dynamics can lead to defections under specific conditions. While much attention has focused on opposition group defections, there is limited exploration of defections from government-aligned militias, particularly pro-government militias (PGMs). This chapter examines PGMs in Sudan, where peace negotiations often threaten their political and material interests, compelling them to resist processes that disrupt the status quo of conflict. PGMs, often remnants of colonial strategies employing local militias for control, act as “spoilers” when excluded from peace processes or perceive threats to their autonomy and benefits. The April 2023 conflict in Sudan highlights this dynamic. A standoff between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) over military integration escalated into a civil war, engulfing Khartoum and spreading nationwide. The RSF, which evolved from the Janjaweed militia, defected due to disputes over power-sharing and perceived threats to its autonomy. Using rationalist theories of war, this chapter explores how government missteps heighten the likelihood of defection, such as failing to grant concessions to PGMs. This case demonstrates that PGMs can undermine peacebuilding efforts when their interests are excluded or dismissed, highlighting the importance of addressing intra-government divisions during peace negotiations. Ultimately, sustainable peace requires acknowledging the complex interplay between state and militia actors, as demonstrated by Sudan’s ongoing conflict.

The two case studies picked for this chapter illustrate the extent to which religion has been employed as a tool to threaten the security of the nations, with multiple ripple effects. The chapter analyses the security threats posed by terror groups, a case in point, the al-Shabaab in Kenya and Somalia. The analysis is aimed at showing how the extremist groups operate, given the political and economic climate of the two countries. Implicit within this theoretical analysis is the effects of the violent activities, and the embedded intersectional characteristics of extremism. This angle will enable the chapter explore the racial and tribal factors involved. The chapter further explores ways in which, especially the governments of Kenya has handled the insecurities resulting from the activities of the group. The argument made is that the militaristic approach to violent extremism has only attracted the use of propaganda by the extremists, such as marginalization of certain ethnic communities. Members of such communities, especially the youth then find “refuge” in joining the extremist movements. The chapter also argues that the approaches used by the government have been met with harsh criticisms. The chapter therefore proposes some desired models for enhancing security in Kenya and Somalia, and in general, the Horn of Africa. The chapter encourages a pragmatic pedagogy that borrows across development practitioners and models developed in the recent past, especially those that speak to preventing and countering violent extremism (P/CVE).

This chapter examines the complexities of democracy in Africa, challenging the notion of a universal democratic model. It argues for governance systems that authentically reflect Africa’s diverse socio-cultural and historical contexts, emphasizing how precolonial violence continues to shape contemporary democratic practices. By advocating for the decolonization of African governance perspectives, it introduces innovative approaches grounded in indigenous wisdom and the pillars of Afrocentricity, sovereignty, civility, and empowerment. The discussion traces the evolution of democracy from precolonial systems through colonial impacts to modern practices. Guided by the epistemologies of the South, this analysis critiques Western-centric views and supports governance models adapted to local contexts, integrating Afrocentric principles to align democratic governance with Africa’s unique realities. Additionally, the text addresses the challenges posed by coups and resistance to democracy, highlighting how political instability and authoritarianism impact democratic development. Practical strategies are provided to enhance the understanding of democracy, citizen participation, and violence through curriculum design and community engagement.

Africa’s conflict resolution mechanisms are intricate and deeply rooted in traditional governance structures. The role of traditional leaders in fostering peace and stability—particularly in Southern Africa—remains indispensable and requires critical re-examination. Traditional leaders wield unique influence in mediation, community cohesion, and customary justice, making them vital actors in conflict resolution. This chapter explores the historical evolution and contemporary relevance of traditional leaders in peace processes, unveiling a complex tapestry of cultural practices interwoven with modern challenges. Using a qualitative approach, it meticulously analyses case studies that highlight the transformative potential of traditional leadership structures in conflict resolution and peacebuilding. Beyond theoretical exploration, this chapter emphasises practical strategies for leveraging traditional leadership in conflict resolution. It argues for greater agency, recognition, and integration of traditional leaders within modern governance and peace frameworks. The evolving interplay between tradition and modernity underscores the need for redefining their roles to enhance legitimacy, effectiveness, and sustainability in conflict resolution efforts. Rethinking the place of traditional leaders in conflict resolution is critical for shaping scholarly discourse and policy development. This chapter advances the conversation by offering a nuanced perspective on how traditional leadership can be harnessed to build sustainable peace, bridge governance gaps, and foster resilience in African societies—particularly in Southern Africa.

As Kenya’s independence loomed, nationalists established the East African Airlift to support the higher education of close to 800 Africans in North America. The Airlift was designed to overcome limited educational opportunities and Africanize the civil service. Relying on oral histories, secondary literature and archival research, this chapter argues that the scheme is a site of positive peace as it provided opportunities for young men and women to counter racism, patriarchy and negative ethnicity. Amidst the Cold War theatre, these students made claims as “worldmakers” in an era of self-determination as they engaged with the global order to define and expand notions of citizenship and belonging. The Airlift history has contemporary implications for understanding ethnicity, gender, nation-building and state-craft as Africa decolonized. It highlights the importance of conflict resolution mechanisms that recognize and build upon the historical contributions of subaltern actors in promoting just and sustainable peace in Kenya. Centering the voices of the students, this chapter demonstrates peace scholarship’s call to adopt a decolonial approach to realize the local turn. This historical narrative underscores the potential of educational initiatives to address underlying social divisions and foster long-term peace and stability.

The Conflict Monitoring Tool (CMT) was developed by the Center for Research, Training, and Publications (CRTP) to provide a systematic framework for conflict analysis and intervention. Building on a regional peacebuilding analysis conducted by the Hekima Institute of Peace Studies and International Relations (HIPSIR), the CMT assesses conflict dynamics in Kenya, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and Ethiopia—countries selected for their unique conflict profiles. South Sudan exemplifies a protracted internal conflict characterized by unresolved grievances, mistrust among conflicting parties, and a lack of political goodwill hindering peace efforts. Kenya faces recurring political and ethnic tensions, particularly related to electoral violence and historical grievances, which continue to fuel instability. The DRC’s conflict is driven by resource exploitation, weak governance, and unrealistic demands from conflict actors. At the same time, Ethiopia struggles with ethnic-based violence, political rivalries, and tensions surrounding federalism, all worsened by deep mistrust among political groups and communities. These countries share common challenges despite their differences, highlighting the need for structured conflict analysis. The CMT provides policymakers and practitioners with actionable insights to mitigate violence and foster sustainable peacebuilding strategies by monitoring conflict levels, identifying key drivers, and mapping stakeholders.

From the Lake Chad Basin to the Sahel region, insecurity in the West African sub-region is fast deteriorating due to the activities of organised criminal gangs and violent extremists. This has claimed the lives of thousands and displaced many others. The situation is further exacerbated by the proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SAWLs) through porous national borders and contested spaces. The fragile statehood that characterises these nation-states, reflected through poor governance and weak institutions implies their incapacity and continued struggle towards effective border governance. While previous studies have highlighted the causes, and challenges associated with the insecurity impasses across the sub-region, this chapter draws attention to the less apparent incapacities of the sub-national entities that contribute towards fragility within these states and how the continued incapacity affects the provisioning of effective border governance. The absence of this further contributes to the deteriorating human insecurity situation across the West African sub-region. The qualitative study, which draws on secondary sources of data from academic journal articles, books, and local and international news reportage, therefore advances the argument on sub-national state fragility by examining how it contributes to the proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SAWLs), and its implications on regional peace, security, and stability in West Africa.

Climate change is contributing to the displacement of people and contributing to conflicts in Africa. This chapter uses the example of host communities and internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Nampula province in Mozambique to show how climate-related displacements contribute to conflict, instability, and insecurity. Climate change is a critical variable in emergent conflicts in various ways. The cyclones and extreme weather conditions that have hit Cabo Delgado have contributed to population displacements, which have ramifications for peace and security. Secondly, insurgents in Cabo Delgado province in Mozambique capitalize on resource shortages triggered by climate change to recruit members and control the region. Thirdly, IDPs compete and clash with host communities over natural resources, which have become scarce due to climate change impacts, especially decreased food production. The chapter thus shows that peace and security challenges in Africa have transcended traditional forms of security within the military domain to incorporate climate-related security risks. Furthermore, the chapter shows that the climate-related economic dependency nexus does not take place in a vacuum but within a context of colonial legacies and the exclusion of affected communities’ traditional knowledge, culture, religion, and skills by development and humanitarian actors. Addressing climate-induced displacements and related conflicts requires a decolonial lens that paves the way for inclusive, effective, and sustainable interventions informed by traditional knowledges and sensibilities.

Despite an expanding body of policy research within peace and conflict studies, the particular methodological and political considerations for conducting such research in Africa remain relatively underexplored and are only now receiving critical attention. This chapter addresses this gap by exploring current trends in peace and security policy research in Africa. It analyzes the methodological challenges and opportunities inherent in researching Africa’s peace and security landscape, considering issues such as data sources, innovative research practices, and policy uptake. Drawing on recent advancements inspired by methodologies like decoloniality, the local turn, critical feminism, and spatial analysis, the chapter offers a contextual analysis of evolving research approaches and provides a more nuanced understanding of how to conduct impactful peace and security research that can inform better policymaking and practice in Africa.

How do societies in pastoralist conflict-prone zones deter conflicts and build peace? This chapter examines women’s use of Loketio/Logedio (Pregnancy Support Belt) in conflict deterrence and peacebuilding. Using original qualitative data from five focus groups across six villages in Uganda and Kenya, empirical data informs the dominant conventional theory of deterrence, which concerns itself with the pressure to deter conflicts through various means. Confronting the delusional narratives on the non-existence of deterrence concepts, vulnerabilities and incompetence of sub-Saharan women in peacebuilding, the data reveal that by Loketio, women can manage the day-to-day family, society, and neighbourhood interaction through symbolic and pragmatic conflict deterrence and peacebuilding practices. Building inductively, this study provides a novel understanding of the subtle concept of conflict deterrence (through social control and policing) and peacebuilding (through social organization). This study concludes that Loketio’s conflict deterrence and peacebuilding are sustained through its unique normative education system.

This chapter explores the importance of decolonizing peace agreements and situating disarmament initiatives in the Central African Republic (CAR), critiquing the focus on Western global peacebuilding methods that frequently overlook African societies’ cultural, historical, and structural dynamics. Drawing on paradigms of the frameworks of decolonization, the nested theory of conflict, and constructivism, it argues for a transformation that incorporates African knowledge systems, indigenous conflict resolution methods, and local stakeholders’ leadership in shaping peace processes. The exchange contextualizes the long-running conflict in CAR within its colonial past while highlighting how externally imposed resolutions have sidelined traditional governance structures, exacerbating systemic disparities. By addressing overlooked gaps in existing scholarship, such as neglect of indigenous justice systems and community-based disarmament efforts—the chapter further highlights the importance of culturally sensitivity to locally rooted approaches to achieving sustainable peace. Concrete examples demonstrate the effectiveness of traditional methods, such as community mediation and restorative justice sessions, in fostering reconciliation and disarmament. The chapter concludes with practical recommendations emphasizing the importance of local ownership of the peace process, the involvement of traditional leaders in peace talks, and the strengthening of regional African structures that promote decolonization, sustainable peace, and contextually relevant initiatives.

Achieving sustainable peace in post-conflict societies remains a significant challenge due to the protracted nature of contemporary conflicts, competing interests among various actors, and the inherent complexities of peacebuilding. Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) programs have emerged as key mechanisms for fostering sustainable peace. However, their application in prolonged and evolving conflicts has received limited attention. This chapter examines the effectiveness of DDR programs in Africa, focusing on successes, failures, and lessons drawn from case studies in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Central African Republic (CAR), and Sierra Leone. The chapter identifies gaps in existing frameworks through a comparative analysis and proposes actionable recommendations for policymakers and practitioners. Special emphasis is placed on African-centred approaches integrating socio-economic, cultural, and political dimensions to address the root causes of conflict and the risks of re-recruitment. The findings aim to provide insights into designing more effective DDR interventions and advancing sustainable peacebuilding across the region. In conclusion, the chapter underscores the need for DDR programs to be context-specific, inclusive, and embedded within comprehensive peacebuilding strategies to ensure long-term stability in post-conflict African societies.

This chapter discusses crime in urban settings within the context of peace, conflict, and security from a gender perspective. The youth bulge in Africa presents a double-edged sword: when empowered, youth can become a force for positive change; otherwise, they may pose a significant threat to peace and security, primarily through involvement in crime. Traditionally, crime has been viewed as a male-dominated sphere; yet women—particularly young women in urban settlements—are actively engaged in criminal activities. Deprived of basic needs, they often resort to crime and antisocial behavior, facilitating the flow of illegal arms, which further exacerbates violence and insecurity. Socio-economic and familial factors compel them to seek coping mechanisms within criminal gang structures to fulfill unmet needs. The examination of crime must be integrated into peace, conflict, and security studies in Africa, emphasizing the need for community policing strategies based on trust-building and gender-sensitive approaches to better understand and address gender dynamics. Furthermore, the decolonization debate highlights how contemporary socio-economic systems marginalize youth, with an education system oriented toward formal employment, despite a scarcity of jobs. This marginalization underscores the urgency for inclusive policies that empower youth and mitigate the risks of crime and insecurity within urban contexts.