The Public Diplomacy of Authoritarian Regimes

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. Public Diplomacy of Authoritarian Regimes: An Introduction

   Vedat Demir, Carola Richter

   Abstract

   This introductory chapter examines the resurgence of authoritarian regimes in the early 21st century and their evolving use of public diplomacy. The chapter explores the adaptability of public diplomacy as a framework to analyze authoritarian communication strategies and identifies the defining features of such regimes. It critically reviews existing literature, revealing significant gaps in comparative studies of authoritarian public diplomacy, especially beyond prominent case studies like China, Russia, and Iran. The chapter also outlines key research questions regarding the blurred boundaries between public diplomacy practices of authoritarian and democratic regimes. Finally, it presents the book’s structure, explaining how each chapter contributes to a nuanced understanding of public diplomacy’s role in authoritarian contexts amid shifting geopolitical dynamics.

3. Historical and Conceptual Perspectives on Authoritarian Regimes’ Public Diplomacy

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 2. Battling for Bigotry: Apartheid South Africa’s Authoritarian Struggle for Reputational Security, 1948–1994

      Nicholas J. Cull

      Abstract

      This chapter will consider the strategies, tactics, and outcomes of Apartheid South Africa’s half-century-long global public diplomacy campaign, framed by the author’s notion of reputational security. It shows how South Africa’s approaches evolved. The 1950s featured benign promotion overseas with repression at home. The 1960s saw intensive marketing abroad and aggressive image control at home. The 1970s saw a full-scale covert propaganda campaign, which damaged South Africa’s image when its excesses were revealed. Tactics in the 1980s ranged from modern public relations and lobbying to the murder of opponents overseas. In the end the regime had no alternative to negotiation. Some of the regimes approaches abroad remain in the public diplomacy repertoire of today’s authoritarians and others who seek to appeal to global publics in dubious causes.

   3. Chapter 3. When Soft Power Matters Not: The Priam Syndrome

      Sameera Durrani

      Abstract

      Public diplomacy is discursively focused on enhancing global influence, epitomized in Nye’s theory of soft power. Most countries desire soft power. The exception is one form of governance: authoritarianism. Autocrats have a complex relationship with soft power. The significance of understanding these dynamics is enhanced by the rise of ‘strongmen’ populists. The chapter outlines an interdisciplinary conceptual model, drawing inspiration from Greek mythology. Cassandra, a daughter of Priam, King of Troy, predicted Troy would fall, but was dismissed. ‘Cassandra Syndrome’ is a metaphor to describe someone whose valid warnings are disbelieved. For every ‘Cassandra,’ an analyst whose warnings are dismissed, there is a ‘Priam,’ a leader who fails to listen. The chapter therefore explores the dynamics of a ‘Priam Syndrome’—a constellation of structural, psychosocial, and discursive factors enabling destructive, authoritarian leadership leading to soft power decline.

   4. Chapter 4. Dealing with Authoritarian States: Adversarial Public Diplomacy and Smart-Power Foreign Policy of the US Toward Iran

      Pourang Zarif Karimi

      Abstract

      This chapter examines the role of smart power in US digital public diplomacy toward Iran, focusing on the strategic use of both hard and soft power in adversarial relations. By revisiting key events surrounding the Iran nuclear threat, such as the Obama administration’s engagement with Iran and the 2015 nuclear agreement (JCPOA), and contrasting it with the hard-oriented public diplomacy under Trump, it explores how public diplomacy serves as a tool for conflict management and diplomacy in hostile contexts. Drawing on a constructivist perspective, the chapter proposes a model of adversarial public diplomacy, where the soft and hard elements of power are differentiated not by categorizing power resources as inherently soft or hard, but by the functions they serve in relation to three key actors. This approach highlights the dynamic, context-dependent nature of power in diplomatic engagements, offering a pathway to a more nuanced definition and measurement of smart power in foreign policy analysis.

4. Authoritarian Regimes and Their Public Diplomacy: In-depth Case Studies

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 5. The Domestic-International Nexus of Authoritarian Public Diplomacy: Saudi Arabia in Focus

      Jens Heibach

      Abstract

      Since regime survival often hinges on the credibility authoritarian incumbents enjoy at home and abroad, authoritarian public diplomacy must operate at the interface of the domestic and the international. While the latter is not unique to autocracies, the conditions under which authoritarian public diplomacy unfolds and the methods it employs clearly distinguish it from the approaches of liberal democracies. Taking Saudi Arabia as its case study, the chapter proposes that the Kingdom’s traditional sources of regime legitimacy have experienced serious disruption with the launching of the ‘Saudi Vision 2030,’ prompting significant shifts in its established public diplomacy strategies to ward off both external and internal threats to regime stability. In a nutshell, the country’s efforts to promote ‘the new Saudi Arabia’ aim to bolster the Vision externally by, for instance, attracting international investment alongside rallying support for these comprehensive social and economic changes among key segments of the domestic populace.

   3. Chapter 6. The Entrepreneurial State’s Role in Shaping Public Diplomacy: Insights from the UAE

      Mohammed Ibahrine

      Abstract

      This chapter investigates the United Arab Emirates’ (UAE) pioneering role as an entrepreneurial state in advancing public diplomacy, underpinned by theoretical frameworks such as Mazzucato’s concept of the entrepreneurial state. It examines how the UAE has strategically implemented national branding, cultural diplomacy, and digital innovation initiatives to strengthen its global influence and reputation. Drawing on qualitative case studies and analysis of policy frameworks, the study elucidates the UAE’s transformation into a knowledge-based economy, leveraging its distinctive geopolitical position and proactive state-led investments. The findings underscore the UAE’s ability to redefine the paradigm of small-state diplomacy, offering valuable insights for other nations aspiring to achieve global prominence through strategic public diplomacy. The chapter concludes by addressing critical issues of sustainability, authenticity, and the challenges posed by shifting global political dynamics, emphasizing the importance of adaptive and innovative strategies in an increasingly complex international landscape.

   4. Chapter 7. Comparative Regimes and Public Diplomacy: A Study of Chinese and US Soft Power Strategies in the Middle East

      Mohamad Zreik

      Abstract

      In the complex realm of international relations, soft power plays a key role in fostering cross-cultural understanding and diplomatic ties. This study explores the contrasting soft power strategies of China and the United States in the Middle East, shaped by their respective governance models. China’s centralized, methodical approach, closely tied to its Belt and Road Initiative, emphasizes mutual growth and global interconnectedness. In contrast, the United States promotes democratic ideals and cultural exchange through educational programs and civil society initiatives. By comparing these strategies, the study examines how governance structures influence public diplomacy and soft power projection in the region, highlighting their respective strengths, limitations, and reception by Middle Eastern nations.

   5. Chapter 8. Public Diplomacy in Turkey: From Democratization to Democratic Backsliding

      Vedat Demir

      Abstract

      This chapter examines Turkey’s public diplomacy under the Recep Tayyip Erdoğan government, tracing its evolution from democratization to authoritarianization. It explores the strategic use of public diplomacy and soft power, analyzing shifts in policies, tools, and implementation over time. By contrasting the Justice and Development Party’s (AKP) early years with the democratic backsliding since 2011, the chapter highlights how democratization and authoritarianization processes have affected Turkey’s public diplomacy, shifting it from soft power to sharp power.

   6. Chapter 9. Venezuela: From Oil Diplomacy to Disinformation Pawn

      Maria Puerta Riera

      Abstract

      In this chapter, we explore Venezuela’s shift from soft power, rooted in oil diplomacy and regional solidarity, to sharp power tactics reflected in disinformation and authoritarian influence operations. Under Hugo Chávez, Venezuela used its vast oil wealth to foster alliances while promoting its socialist agenda through initiatives such as PetroCaribe and ALBA. These strategies expanded the regime’s regional influence, challenging US hegemony and Western democratic ideals. However, with Nicolás Maduro in power, Venezuela’s declining oil revenues and increasing political isolation forced it to resort to sharp power techniques. Along with Cuba, the Venezuelan regime has employed propaganda, censorship, and surveillance to consolidate control and disseminate anti-democratic narratives through platforms like teleSUR. The chapter analyzes the geopolitical and ideological impacts of Venezuela’s public diplomacy transformation, bringing to the fore the implications for regional stability and democratic governance. It aims to call for attention to the urgent need for global responses to counter sharp power strategies and protect democratic institutions in Latin America and beyond.

   7. Chapter 10. Russia’s Public Diplomacy: Navigating the Shadows of the War in Ukraine

      Ana Jović-Lazić

      Abstract

      The chapter explores Russian public diplomacy in response to the Ukraine conflict, highlighting efforts to influence global perceptions through disinformation, propaganda, and historical tactics from the Soviet era. The research recognizes the intricacies of Russian methods and their global ramifications while acknowledging the inherent challenges of Russia’s public diplomacy model. The chapter empirically validates the hypothesis that Russia’s public diplomacy employs strategies, tools, and narratives tailored to its authoritarian government, setting them apart from typical liberal democratic approaches. The chapter also identifies specific strategies aimed at neighboring countries and the West, particularly emphasizing the post-Soviet dimension characterized by deviations from traditional soft power narratives. The chapter’s findings shed light on how authoritarian regimes engage with the global public sphere during periods of international tension and conflicts, challenging prevailing notions about soft power dynamics and providing insights into the multifaceted impacts of Russian actions and objectives on other countries.

   8. Chapter 11. The ‘Speak Egyptian, Speak Arabic’ Campaign: A Tool of Egypt’s Public Diplomacy

      Aida M. Yehia Abd El Rehim

      Abstract

      Egypt is strongly recognized and distinguished in the field of diplomacy in the MENA region. Public diplomacy is used by the Egyptian state to promote its foreign and domestic policy and to send messages abroad. This chapter explores how Egypt particularly employs public diplomacy among its expats and migrants to rally them around their president. The campaign ‘Speak Egyptian, Speak Arabic’ is used as a case study to explain this argument. This campaign is used to showcase the popularity of the president inside Egypt and among Egyptians living abroad. The purpose of highlighting the president’s popularity among Egyptians is to send a message to the international community that the current administration is legitimate and popular.

5. Authoritarian Soft Power Strategies: Examining Public Diplomacy in Sports, Environment, Culture, Religion, and Academia

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 12. The Lion King: Moroccan Football and Sports Diplomacy as a Means of Power Legitimation

      Andreas Wüst

      Abstract

      Studies into soft power and public diplomacy have become a standard repertoire in contemporary social sciences and international relations in particular. This chapter positions itself within this tradition and explores how the Moroccan monarchy attempts to use sports diplomacy to enhance its nation brand. In-depth media analysis yields that Moroccan sports policies are strategically designed to accompany the kingdom’s foreign policy endeavors to reach international recognition for its claims on the internationally contested territory of Western Sahara and its strife for regional hegemony. However, this chapter also goes beyond the traditional scope of soft power analyses by including observations on the discursive exploitation of Morocco’s success at the 2022 FIFA Football World Cup. It shows that apart from the international community, the same sports policies also target a domestic public to instill pride in the nation and patriotic feelings for the monarchy.

   3. Chapter 13. The ‘Footballization’ of Saudi Arabia’s Sports Diplomacy: Football Politics as a Driver for ‘Beauty,’ ‘Brilliance,’ and ‘Benignity’

      Sebastian Sons

      Abstract

      By promoting ‘beauty,’ ‘brilliance,’ and ‘benignity’ through the ‘footballization’ of sports diplomacy, the Saudi leadership aims to pursue socio-economic, political, and socio-cultural aspirations aiming at generating strategic access to attractive global markets in Europe and beyond in times of substantial economic diversification. Domestically, football investments intend to develop a national sports industry and create jobs for Saudi nationals, to promote its regional reputation as a non-Western platform for top sports, to integrate football into its nationalist identity politics, and to attract foreign investors and tourists. As such, football as the ‘beautiful game’ provides the Saudi leadership an influential and powerful instrument to consolidate authoritarian power, preserve social cohesion, and promote national unity and youth and female empowerment. By referring to relevant theories of sports diplomacy and soft power, the chapter thus delves into Saudi Arabia’s current socio-economic and regional transformation by assessing its public diplomacy efforts through football politics.

   4. Chapter 14. Green Authoritarian Assertiveness: The UAE’s Public Diplomacy Agenda at COP28

      Tobias Zumbraegel

      Abstract

      In the global political arena, authoritarian regimes increasingly leverage public diplomacy to enhance their international image and influence. This chapter explores the case of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and its utilization of green diplomacy as a soft power strategy to bolster its global reputation. Hosting COP28 in Dubai in December 2023 marked the culmination of a strategic realignment. The UAE employed state-controlled media, diplomatic and economic incentives, and global partnerships to promote its model of a clean energy transition while advancing its geopolitical influence. Case studies include its framing of fossil fuel use, promotion of integrated clean energy systems, and marketing of experimental climate technologies. By analyzing these strategies, this chapter contributes to a broader discourse on the intersection of environmentalism, geopolitics, and public diplomacy in an era of shifting power dynamics on the world stage.

   5. Chapter 15. From Turkey to Türkiye: Public Diplomacy of Symbols

      Senem B. Çevik

      Abstract

      This chapter examines the contrasting public diplomacy approaches and civilizational vision of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in shaping Turkey’s national identity and international status. Despite their different ideological approaches, both leaders utilized symbolic representations to consolidate their regimes and assert Turkey’s status globally. Atatürk envisioned a future based on muasır medeniyet (civilized nations), while Erdoğan envisions a future on a neo-Ottoman articulation of civilization. This chapter highlights how these strategies reflect broader shifts in Turkey’s domestic and foreign policies, offering insights into the role of authoritarianism in public diplomacy and the ways in which both leaders sought status within Western institutions, while consolidating their respective regimes.

   6. Chapter 16. Saudi Arabian Public Diplomacy as a Tool of Soft Power

      Giulio M. Gallarotti

      Abstract

      Saudi Arabian public diplomacy is deeper than the conventional direct initiatives the Kingdom has recently engaged in. Indeed, through these initiatives the Kingdom has created a charm offensive as a vehicle to enhance its international image, and in doing so it has hoped to increase its influence in the global community. But its image has also been strongly dependent on indigenous characteristics and domestic policies. These are the indirect or latent sources of its public appeal. Interestingly enough they derive both from tradition and modernity. The Kingdom derives extraordinary influence as the traditional center of the Islamic and Arab worlds. Yet with its most recent push to build a modern society and economy through its Vision 2030, it has raised its standing as a future cosmopolitan entrepôt.

   7. Chapter 17. China’s Influence in the European Union: From Soft Power to Tight Power

      Olivier Arifon

      Abstract

      To develop their influence, states promote an image, often around cultural offerings, and resources, framed into a soft power or public diplomacy policy. Since 2012, the discourse of the People’s Republic of China has been articulated around three axes: trade and economic relations are stipulated through the Belt and Road initiative, cultural superiority relates to its ancient civilization, and the influence policy relies on co-optation of elites and on social networking with dedicated relays such as academic institutions and think tanks. How can an authoritarian power propose an attractive or appealing discourse? How can such regimes resolve the oxymoron between the autonomy of non-governmental actors engaged in cultural actions and in co-construction of programs? Moreover, when audiences are reluctant to receive framed and imposed messages and want to decide on their commitment toward a culture, the challenge for an authoritarian regime such as China is concrete.

   8. Chapter 18. Academia Supporting Autocracy: The Latin American Council of Social Sciences and the Authoritarian Public Diplomacy of Cuba

      Armando Chaguaceda, Leonardo Fernández Otaño

      Abstract

      This chapter evaluates the mechanisms of public diplomacy used in recent decades by the Cuban authoritarian regime to influence foreign citizens abroad as well as democratic states. In particular, the strategy used in international academic spaces will be analyzed by studying the collaboration networks established by the Latin American Council of Social Sciences (CLACSO). This institution, created to protect exiled academics during the period of the national security regimes in Latin America, has been used by the Cuban regime as an agent of public diplomacy that, through incoherent academic discourse, legitimizes academic censorship and human rights violations that take place in Cuba.

6. Conclusion

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 19. Public Diplomacy of Authoritarian States: Conclusive Remarks

      Carola Richter, Vedat Demir

      Abstract

      This chapter synthesizes comparative findings on the diverse public diplomacy strategies employed by authoritarian regimes. It identifies the centrality of domestic legitimation and repression in shaping international outreach. Key features include centralized, hierarchical structures, externalization of repression, dynamic adaptation of soft power tools, and a strategic turn toward the Global South as a primary target of influence. The chapter proposes a heuristic framework distinguishing four overlapping authoritarian public diplomacy approaches: the great power, promoting modernization, occasional intruder, and ideology dissemination approaches. It finds that authoritarian regimes’ public diplomacy is highly adaptive, frequently blending strategies and learning from peer experiences. Ultimately, public diplomacy in these contexts is a contested, evolving arena, challenging traditional assumptions about the exclusive linkage between democracy and soft power. This underscores the need for further comparative, context-sensitive research.

7. Backmatter