1 Introduction
2 Family Relationships and Well-Being Across Cultures
3 The Socioecological Approach: Cultural Heterogeneity
3.1 Historical Versus Contemporary Cultural Heterogeneity
4 Method
4.1 Participants
Society | Sample size | GDP per capita (US$; raw data) | Historical CH (raw data) | Contemporary CH (raw data) | Male ratio (%) | Age (Mean) | Age (SD) | FRS (Mean) | FRS (SD) | Life satisfaction (Mean) | Life satisfaction (SD) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Argentina | 175 | 14591.86 | 37 | 122 | 26 | 32.43 | 11.35 | 6.70 | 1.68 | 5.75 | 1.32 |
Australia | 340 | 54093.60 | 46 | 206 | 42 | 37.85 | 16.86 | 5.43 | 2.34 | 4.82 | 1.87 |
Austria | 320 | 47380.83 | 7 | 187 | 19 | 28.59 | 10.14 | 7.03 | 1.99 | 6.47 | 1.55 |
Brazil | 606 | 9880.95 | 25 | 160 | 45 | 27.43 | 10.13 | 6.26 | 2.18 | 5.19 | 1.67 |
Bulgaria | 121 | 8228.01 | 10 | 169 | 21 | 30.00 | 8.62 | 7.62 | 1.89 | 5.98 | 1.55 |
Bhutan | 119 | 3390.71 | 2 | 24 | 39 | 22.62 | 2.43 | 7.24 | 2.12 | 4.78 | 1.46 |
Canada | 240 | 45069.93 | 63 | 197 | 28 | 21.89 | 4.77 | 6.44 | 2.01 | 5.47 | 1.55 |
Chile | 221 | 15037.35 | 35 | 210 | 42 | 21.55 | 3.11 | 6.54 | 1.92 | 5.85 | 1.65 |
China | 199 | 8759.04 | 1 | 20 | 28 | 20.58 | 4.70 | 6.77 | 1.92 | 5.23 | 1.51 |
Colombia | 466 | 6375.93 | 23 | 91 | 48 | 32.96 | 12.36 | 6.79 | 1.97 | 5.82 | 1.54 |
Croatia | 140 | 13383.68 | 12 | 71 | 16 | 30.69 | 11.12 | 6.91 | 1.88 | 5.94 | 1.47 |
Czech Republic | 201 | 20379.90 | 4 | 164 | 48 | 22.23 | 3.48 | 6.37 | 2.25 | 5.73 | 1.60 |
Estonia | 200 | 20200.38 | 5 | 97 | 29 | 28.80 | 10.53 | 6.39 | 2.12 | 5.96 | 1.39 |
France | 216 | 38679.13 | 11 | 205 | 17 | 31.75 | 10.45 | 6.23 | 1.98 | 5.65 | 1.46 |
Georgia | 234 | 4045.42 | 4 | 46 | 47 | 20.05 | 2.56 | 6.79 | 2.05 | 5.13 | 1.51 |
Germany | 106 | 44681.08 | 7 | 134 | 18 | 22.43 | 3.40 | 6.72 | 2.11 | 6.05 | 1.40 |
Ghana | 266 | 2025.89 | 3 | 43 | 46 | 22.21 | 2.36 | 6.79 | 2.04 | 5.02 | 1.61 |
Greece | 427 | 18883.46 | 1 | 182 | 40 | 24.69 | 5.75 | 6.73 | 1.97 | 5.48 | 1.52 |
Guatemala | 111 | 4470.61 | 24 | 49 | 28 | 20.51 | 2.37 | 6.72 | 1.87 | 6.07 | 1.49 |
Hong Kong | 291 | 46220.50 | 3 | 29 | 63 | 21.16 | 2.23 | 5.70 | 1.98 | 4.57 | 1.55 |
Hungary | 831 | 14278.87 | 12 | 158 | 27 | 20.89 | 2.39 | 6.62 | 2.02 | 6.29 | 1.51 |
Iceland | 353 | 71314.77 | 1 | 143 | 19 | 30.88 | 11.58 | 6.87 | 1.87 | 6.10 | 1.58 |
Indonesia | 198 | 3836.91 | 2 | 19 | 44 | 26.70 | 11.89 | 6.24 | 2.67 | 5.56 | 1.58 |
Iran | 199 | 5627.75 | 3 | 7 | 50 | 34.42 | 9.44 | 6.33 | 2.07 | 5.01 | 1.67 |
Ireland | 244 | 68941.81 | 12 | 183 | 39 | 20.96 | 3.18 | 7.07 | 1.84 | 5.85 | 1.49 |
Italy | 288 | 32155.21 | 5 | 193 | 46 | 25.14 | 4.52 | 6.74 | 1.86 | 5.56 | 1.50 |
Japan | 198 | 38331.98 | 1 | 42 | 61 | 19.56 | 1.23 | 6.53 | 2.09 | 4.07 | 1.48 |
Korea | 208 | 29742.84 | 1 | 20 | 52 | 22.43 | 3.52 | 6.49 | 1.97 | 4.82 | 1.50 |
Lithuania | 296 | 16809.65 | 5 | 57 | 26 | 25.65 | 10.92 | 6.85 | 1.78 | 5.99 | 1.53 |
Luxembourg | 220 | 104498.74 | 9 | 77 | 30 | 25.77 | 9.30 | 6.77 | 2.03 | 5.95 | 1.51 |
Malaysia | 190 | 10117.57 | 5 | 22 | 32 | 20.82 | 1.62 | 7.46 | 1.63 | 5.54 | 1.36 |
Mexico | 175 | 9281.10 | 25 | 90 | 42 | 20.80 | 3.91 | 6.77 | 1.93 | 6.25 | 1.65 |
Netherlands | 194 | 48482.77 | 28 | 180 | 90 | 19.41 | 1.85 | 6.96 | 1.82 | 5.97 | 1.34 |
Nigeria | 137 | 1968.56 | 3 | 9 | 17 | 19.82 | 1.51 | 6.15 | 2.23 | 4.38 | 1.67 |
Norway | 250 | 75704.25 | 1 | 168 | 21 | 22.66 | 4.83 | 6.98 | 1.96 | 5.82 | 1.69 |
Pakistan | 240 | 1466.84 | 3 | 8 | 53 | 21.78 | 3.46 | 6.66 | 2.10 | 5.16 | 1.57 |
Poland | 472 | 13861.05 | 3 | 117 | 31 | 32.51 | 14.77 | 5.41 | 2.05 | 4.28 | 1.47 |
Portugal | 260 | 21291.43 | 15 | 128 | 33 | 28.61 | 12.61 | 6.70 | 1.93 | 5.85 | 1.47 |
Romania | 290 | 10792.96 | 10 | 60 | 50 | 22.30 | 6.12 | 6.87 | 1.91 | 6.00 | 1.48 |
Russia | 270 | 10750.59 | 5 | 148 | 37 | 19.76 | 1.55 | 6.63 | 2.05 | 4.56 | 1.42 |
Salvador | 240 | 3902.24 | 2 | 48 | 41 | 26.90 | 8.72 | 6.96 | 1.92 | 5.99 | 1.61 |
Saudi Arabia | 178 | 20803.74 | 18 | 17 | 19 | 39.37 | 13.43 | 6.99 | 2.22 | 5.72 | 1.68 |
Serbia | 210 | 6284.19 | 11 | 76 | 50 | 20.11 | 1.58 | 7.20 | 1.76 | 6.18 | 1.44 |
Slovakia | 311 | 17579.26 | 10 | 93 | 47 | 21.55 | 1.95 | 6.68 | 2.16 | 5.49 | 1.52 |
Switzerland | 344 | 80333.44 | 12 | 178 | 77 | 25.93 | 6.00 | 6.79 | 1.89 | 6.20 | 1.33 |
Taiwan | 210 | 25080.00 | 2 | 112 | 36 | 19.99 | 1.41 | 6.03 | 2.13 | 4.63 | 1.54 |
Turkey | 202 | 10499.75 | 6 | 109 | 47 | 31.99 | 11.68 | 6.91 | 1.81 | 5.57 | 1.45 |
UK | 146 | 39932.06 | 25 | 205 | 66 | 20.71 | 3.04 | 6.59 | 2.17 | 5.40 | 1.65 |
Ukraine | 210 | 2640.68 | 4 | 30 | 43 | 19.02 | 2.26 | 6.34 | 2.14 | 4.69 | 1.49 |
USA | 446 | 59927.93 | 83 | 150 | 29 | 21.37 | 5.81 | 6.33 | 2.37 | 5.38 | 1.80 |
4.2 Measures
4.2.1 Individual-Level Variables
4.2.1.1 Family Relationship Satisfaction
4.2.1.2 Life Satisfaction
4.2.1.3 Individual-Level Control Variables
4.2.2 Societal-Level Variables
4.2.2.1 Cultural Heterogeneity
4.2.2.2 Societal-Level Control Variable
4.3 Analytic Plan
5 Results
5.1 Measurement Invariance
5.2 Family Relationship Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction Across Societies
Society | b | SE | Beta | Society | b | SE | Beta |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Argentina | 0.22*** | 0.06 | 0.29 | Italy | 0.38*** | 0.04 | 0.48 |
Australia | 0.41*** | 0.04 | 0.52 | Japan | 0.21*** | 0.05 | 0.29 |
Austria | 0.31*** | 0.04 | 0.40 | Korea | 0.25*** | 0.05 | 0.33 |
Brazil | 0.32*** | 0.03 | 0.42 | Lithuania | 0.32*** | 0.05 | 0.38 |
Bulgaria | 0.17* | 0.08 | 0.19 | Luxembourg | 0.29*** | 0.05 | 0.38 |
Bhutan | 0.21*** | 0.06 | 0.30 | Malaysia | 0.32*** | 0.06 | 0.38 |
Canada | 0.37*** | 0.04 | 0.48 | Mexico | 0.43*** | 0.06 | 0.52 |
Chile | 0.42*** | 0.05 | 0.49 | Netherlands | 0.30*** | 0.05 | 0.41 |
China | 0.23*** | 0.05 | 0.29 | Nigeria | 0.39*** | 0.06 | 0.52 |
Colombia | 0.33*** | 0.034 | 0.43 | Norway | 0.41*** | 0.05 | 0.48 |
Croatia | 0.47*** | 0.05 | 0.60 | Pakistan | 0.25*** | 0.05 | 0.34 |
Czech Republic | 0.27*** | 0.05 | 0.38 | Poland | 0.27*** | 0.03 | 0.38 |
Estonia | 0.28*** | 0.04 | 0.42 | Portugal | 0.33*** | 0.04 | 0.44 |
France | 0.31*** | 0.05 | 0.42 | Romania | 0.38*** | 0.04 | 0.48 |
Georgia | 0.21*** | 0.05 | 0.28 | Russia | 0.23*** | 0.04 | 0.33 |
Germany | 0.21** | 0.07 | 0.31 | Salvador | 0.38*** | 0.05 | 0.45 |
Ghana | 0.29*** | 0.05 | 0.37 | Saudi Arabia | 0.30*** | 0.05 | 0.40 |
Greece | 0.35*** | 0.03 | 0.44 | Serbia | 0.33*** | 0.05 | 0.40 |
Guatemala | 0.43*** | 0.06 | 0.52 | Slovakia | 0.30*** | 0.04 | 0.42 |
Hong Kong | 0.35*** | 0.04 | 0.44 | Switzerland | 0.34*** | 0.03 | 0.49 |
Hungary | 0.36*** | 0.02 | 0.48 | Taiwan | 0.33*** | 0.05 | 0.47 |
Iceland | 0.37*** | 0.04 | 0.44 | Turkey | 0.26*** | 0.05 | 0.32 |
Indonesia | 0.25*** | 0.04 | 0.42 | UK | 0.37*** | 0.06 | 0.48 |
Iran | 0.44*** | 0.05 | 0.55 | Ukraine | 0.27*** | 0.05 | 0.39 |
Ireland | 0.35*** | 0.05 | 0.42 | USA | 0.44*** | 0.03 | 0.58 |
5.3 The Role of Historical and Contemporary Cultural Heterogeneity
Moderator: Historical CH | Moderator: Contemporary CH | Moderators: Historical CH and Contemporary CH | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | Model 6 | |||||||
b | SE | b | SE | b | SE | b | SE | b | SE | b | SE | |
Societal-level factor | ||||||||||||
GDP per capita | .004 | .004 | .001 | .004 | .001 | .004 | ||||||
Historical CH | .51 | .51 | .37 | .52 | .01 | .54 | .01 | .55 | ||||
Contemporary CH | .29* | .12 | .27 | .14 | .29* | .13 | .27 | .15 | ||||
Individual-level factor | ||||||||||||
Age | .01** | .003 | .01** | .003 | .01** | .003 | ||||||
Gender | − .02 | .03 | − .02 | .03 | − .02 | .03 | ||||||
FRS | .32*** | .01 | .32*** | .01 | .32*** | .01 | .32*** | .01 | .32*** | .01 | .32*** | .01 |
Cross-level interaction | ||||||||||||
Historical CH x FRS | .18** | .05 | .17** | .05 | .15** | .05 | .15** | .05 | ||||
Contemporary CH x FRS | .03* | .01 | .03 | .01 | .01 | .01 | .01 | .01 |