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2017 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

The Role of the General Principle of the Prohibition of Abuse of Rights in the Enforcement of Human Rights in Contract Law: A Belgian Law Perspective

verfasst von : Annekatrien Lenaerts

Erschienen in: The Constitutional Dimension of Contract Law

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter will determine and evaluate the role of the general principle prohibiting the abuse of rights in the enforcement of human rights in contractual relations, essentially from the angle of Belgian law. Whereas this principle has been created and developed in private law relations, the influence of international human rights has increased the importance of the discussed principle. It will be demonstrated on the basis of the Belgian case law that the criteria to find an abuse of rights constitute appropriate tools to enforce human rights in contractual relations (e.g., the right to non-discrimination, the right to human dignity or the right to privacy). As such, these criteria and the technique of judicial review, which are applied in private law relations, have been concretised or modulated in light of the proportionality test used in the protection of human rights in vertical relations.

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Vorheriges Kapitel The Influence of Constitutional Law on French Contract Law: The Development of the Control of Proportionality in Case of an Infringement of a Fundamental Right by Contract

Nächstes Kapitel Crystal and Mud Contracts: The Theory of Contract and the Ontology of Values

Stijns (2005b), pp. 62–63; Van Ommeslaghe (2010), pp. 52–54; Wéry (2011), p. 126.

Stijns (2005b), pp. 62–63; Wéry (2011), p. 126.

De Page (1962), p. 168; Stijns (2005b), pp. 63 and 66; Van Oevelen (1991), p. 142. See for France: Ghestin et al. (1994), p. 792.

Stijns (2005b), p. 63.

See for an overview: Fleischer (2003), pp. 865–868; Neville Braun (1994), pp. 513–515.

See for Belgium: Van Gerven (1987), pp. 197–201; see for France: Ghestin et al. (1994), pp. 747–795.

See for Belgium: Judgment of 19 Sept. 1983, [1984] 1 Pasicrisie 55 (Cour de cassation); Judgment of 16 Jan. 1986, [1986] 1 Pasicrisie 602 (Cour de cassation); Judgment of 18 Feb. 1988, [1988] 1 Pasicrisie 728 (Cour de cassation); Judgment of 8 Feb. 2001, [2001] 1 Pasicrisie 244 (Cour de cassation); Stijns (2005b), pp. 64–72; Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), pp. 100–101. See for France: Stoffel-Munck (2000), pp. 66 et seq.

Judgment of 17 May 1990, [1990] 1 Pasicrisie, 1061 (Cour de cassation); Judgment of 20 Feb. 1992, [1992] 1 Pasicrisie 549 (Cour de cassation).

Stijns (2005b), pp. 65–66; Van Gerven and Lierman (2010), p. 426.

Judgment of 29 Nov. 1994, [1995] Dalloz 122 (Cour de cassation (Chambre civile)); Judgment of 20 Jan. 1998, [1998] Dalloz 413 (Cour de cassation (Chambre commerciale)).

Stoffel-Munck (2000), pp. 60 and 85 et seq. See also Fauvarque-Cosson and Mazeaud (2008), pp. 258–260.

§ 242 German Civil code.

Articles 6:2 (2) and 6:248 (2) Dutch Civil code.

See for Germany: Heinrichs (2006) § 242, pp. 246–251; Larenz and Wolf (2004), pp. 284–290. See for the Netherlands: Hartkamp (2005), pp. 320–341. However, in the Netherlands, originally the limitative function of good faith was entirely assimilated with the principle of the prohibition of abuse of rights. See Meijers, explanatory works to the Dutch Civil code, Parlementaire geschiedenis, Invoering boek 3, p. 1040 and Parlementaire geschiedenis, Voorlopig antwoord op vraagpunt 21, Boek 6, pp. 43–44, discussed in Stijns (1994), p. 403: the restrictions imposed on the exercise of a right based on reasonableness and fairness on the one hand and on abuse on the other hand coincide. It follows that the criteria for the existence of an abuse of rights are useful to evaluate whether the exercise of a right is contrary to reasonableness and fairness.

See for more details: Lenaerts (2010), pp. 1121 et seq.

Judgment of 10 Sept. 1971, [1972] 1 Pasicrisie 28 (Cour de cassation).

Ronse (1977), pp. 210–211; Stijns (1990), pp. 41 et seq.; Stijns (2005b), p. 67; Van Ommeslaghe (2010), p. 74.

Stijns (2005b), p. 67.

Stijns (1994), p. 429.

Judgment of 30 Jan. 2003, [2003] 1 Pasicrisie 227 (Cour de cassation).

See for an overview: Van Gerven (1987), pp. 184–191.

See Mazeaud and Tunc (1965), pp. 653–655.

See on these specific criteria: Baeck (2007), pp. 64–74; Stijns (1990), p. 40; Stijns (2005b), pp. 67–70; Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), pp. 99–100; Van Ommeslaghe (2010), pp. 77–81; Wéry (2011), pp. 127–128.

See for a recent application: Judgment of 9 March 2009, [2009] Journal des tribunaux 392 (Cour de cassation); Foriers (1994), pp. 217 et seq. According to this author, the criterion of proportionality even contains all other specific criteria of abuse.

Larenz and Wolf (2004), p. 287; Krüger (2007), pp. 168–169 and 209 et seq.

Van Gerven (1987), p. 194; Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 102.

Judgment of 17 Oct. 2008, [2008] 1 Pasicrisie 2278 (Cour de cassation).

Judgment of 17 June 2002, [2003] Revue générale de droit civil belge 446 (Civil Court of Appeal of Liège); Judgment of 4 June 2002, [2003] Revue régionale de droit 455 (Civil Court of Appeal of Liège); Judgment of 6 June 2006, [2006] Journal des tribunaux du travail 373 (Labour Court of Appeal of Liège). See Marchandise (2007), p. 157.

Stijns (1994), pp. 432–433; Stijns et al. (1996), p. 707; Wéry (2011), p. 427. See for France: Ghestin et al. (1994), pp. 793–794.

Judgment of 16 Dec. 1982, [1983] 1 Pasicrisie 472 (Cour de cassation); Judgment of 18 Feb. 1988, [1988] 1 Pasicrisie 728 (Cour de cassation); Judgment of 11 June 1992, [1992] 1 Pasicrisie 898 (Cour de cassation).

See conclusion of Prosecutor-General Ganshof van der Meersch under the judgment of 10 Sept. 1971, [1972] 1 Pasicrisie 28 (Cour de cassation), pp. 37–38; Foriers (1994), p. 206; Van Ommeslaghe (1987), p. 110.

Judgment of 16 Jan. 1986, [1986] 1 Pasicrisie 602 (Cour de cassation).

Judgment of 18 Feb. 1988, [1988] 1 Pasicrisie 728 (Cour de cassation).

Judgment of 8 Feb. 2001, [2001] 1 Pasicrisie 244 (Cour de cassation). See Wéry (2002), p. 127.

Judgment of 1 Oct. 2010, [2010] 1 Pasicrisie 2470 (Cour de cassation); Judgment of 6 Jan. 2011, [2011] 1 Pasicrisie 44 (Cour de cassation).

See for France: Ghestin et al. (1994), pp. 793–794; Le Tourneau (2008), p. 1400, § 6872. See for Germany: Schulze (2005), p. 201; Westerman (2008), p. 848.

Baeck (2007), p. 96; Stijns (2005a), p. 98; Stijns (2005b), p. 71; Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 101; Wéry (2011), p. 429.

Van Oevelen (2001), pp. 780–781; Van Ommeslaghe (2010), pp. 82–83.

See Baeck (2007), pp. 99–102; Stijns (2005a), pp. 98–100; Vanderschot (2005), p. 87.

Van Leuven (2006), p. 171.

See on this evolution: Rimanque and Peeters (1982), p. 11; Velaers (2003), pp. 289–290.

Renauld (2009), p. 19; Rimanque and Peeters (1982), p. 3; Van Drooghenbroeck (2005), pp. 355–356. Critical about the (direct and indirect) horizontal effect of human rights: De Vos (2010), pp. 277–285. In the same sense: Cherednychenko (2004), pp. 1–17; Cherednychenko (2007), p. 553.

In favour of a direct horizontal effect (‘unmittelbare Drittwirkung’): Nipperdey (1972), p. 751; Leisner (1960), p. 354. In favour of an indirect horizontal effect (‘mittelbare Drittwirkung’): Dürig (1978), pp. 66–67; Ganten (2000), pp. 26–27. See also Spielmann (1995), p. 28.

Dirix (1982), pp. 49–51: fundamental rights may have direct effect between citizens but not in the same way as in vertical relations.

Rimanque and Peeters (1982), pp. 16–17.

De Boeck (2003), p. 424; Gallez (2005), pp. 410–411; Rimanque and Peeters (1982), pp. 19–21; Samoy (2004), p. 92; Velaers (2007b), pp. 129–132.

Jansen (2011), p. 383.

Van Leuven (2009), p. 290. This theory has been first developed by Barak (2003), pp. 29–31.

See Dirix (1982), pp. 50–51.

Ibid., p. 43.

Barak (2003), p. 17; Velaers (2007b), p. 130.

Van Leuven (2006), pp. 174–175. See also De Boeck (2003), p. 424; De Ly (1992), pp. 1144 and 1159; Van Oevelen (1995), p. 371.

Van Leuven (2009), pp. 279–281; Van Oevelen (1982), pp. 103–104.

Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 71. See also Coester-Waltjen (2001), p. 42.

Stijns (2005b), p. 47.

De Boeck (2003), p. 419; Van Oevelen (1991), p. 105. Article 1134 (1) Civil code provides that agreements that are legally concluded have the same value as a legal act in relation to the concluding parties.

Barak (2003), p. 29. See also De Boeck (2003), p. 433; Dirix (2011), p. 812.

Barak (2003), p. 33. See also Jansen (2012), p. 180.

Barak (2003), pp. 33 and 41; Van Leuven (2012), pp. 458–459.

Van Leuven (2008), p. 100.

Spielmann (1995), p. 30.

Young, James and Webster v United Kingdom, judgment of 13 Aug. 1981, [1981] Series A No. 44 (European Court of Human Rights), § 63; Fuentes Bobo v Spain, judgment of 27 Feb. 2000, [2001] Reports VI (European Court of Human Rights), § 38; Verlière v Switzerland, judgment of 28 June 2001, App. No. 41953/98 (European Court of Human Rights); Christine Goodwin v United Kingdom, judgment of 11 July 2002, [2002] Reports VI (European Court of Human Rights); Van Kück v Germany, judgment of 12 June 2003, App. No. 35968/97 (European Court of Human Rights); Khurshid Mustafa and Tarzibachi v Sweden, judgment of 16 Dec. 2008, App. No. 23883/06 (European Court of Human Rights). See De Schutter (2014), pp. 441 and 446–447; Van Leuven (2012), pp. 445–450; Velaers (2007b), p. 128. It has been stressed that the state has to protect the fundamental rights of citizens against abuses of law which are imputable to other citizens: Flauss (1992), p. 465.

Pla and Puncernau v Andorra, judgment of 13 July 2004, App. No. 69498/01 (European Court of Human Rights), § 59.

Jansen (2011), pp. 383–384; Velaers (2007b), pp. 136–137.

Barak (2003), pp. 21–24; De Schutter (2014), p. 466.

Velaers (2007b), p. 133.

Judgment of 12 Feb. 2009, No. 17/2009 (Constitutional Court), B.13 et seq.

Article 1131 Civil code concerns the cause; Article 1133 Civil code provides that a cause is unlawful when it is forbidden by law, contrary to the public order or public morality; Article 6 Civil code provides that contracts may not harm the laws of public order.

Jansen (2011), p. 384; Stijns and Jansen (2013), p. 13.

Judgment of 29 March 2010, [2010] 1 Pasicrisie 1048 (Cour de cassation).

See for example: Judgment of 27 April 1981, [1981] 1 Pasicrisie 964 (Cour de cassation) (direct application of the right to association based on Article 27 Belgian Constitution); Judgment of 27 April 2006, [2006] 1 Pasicrisie 968 (Cour de cassation) (direct application of the right to property based on Article 16 Belgian Constitution and 1 First Protocol ECHR); see for a discussion of the case law: Van Leuven (2009), pp. 189–198.

See for example: Judgment of 29 Sept. 1967, [1968] 1 Pasicrisie 132 (Cour de cassation) (indirect application of the right to a fair trial based on Article 6 ECHR: the Court ruled that a contractual restriction of that right between private parties violated the public order).

Judgment of 29 Sept. 2008, [2008] 1 Pasicrisie 2076 (Cour de cassation).

See Van Leuven (2011), pp. 138–139; Van Leuven (2012), pp. 452–453.

De Boeck (2003), p. 433; Van Leuven (2008), p. 99. See also Hartlief and Stolp (2000), pp. 256–257.

Van Leuven (2009), p. 439.

Van Leuven (2009), p. 439; Velaers (2007a), p. 90; Verhey (1992), p. 161.

See on this condition De Schutter (2014), pp. 344–359; Sudre (2012), pp. 221–226; Vande Lanotte and Haeck (2005), pp. 124–134; Van Leuven (2009), pp. 127–128.

See e.g. Sunday Times v United Kingdom, judgment of 26 April 1979, [1979] Series A No. 30 (European Court of Human Rights), § 49; Silver and others v United Kingdom, judgment of 25 March 1983, [1983] Series A No. 61 (European Court of Human Rights), §§ 85–88; Malone v United Kingdom, judgment of 2 Aug 1984, [1984] Series A No. 82 (European Court of Human Rights), §§ 66–68; Barthold v Germany, judgment of 25 March 1985, [1985] Series A No. 90 (European Court of Human Rights), § 45; Copland v United Kingdom, judgment of 3 April 2007, App. No. 62617/00 (European Court of Human Rights), §§ 45–46; Baczkowski v Poland, judgment of 3 May 2007, [2007] Journal des tribunaux—Droit européen 192 (European Court of Human Rights), §§ 69–71.

See e.g. Klass and others v Germany, Judgment of 6 Sept. 1978, [1978] Series A No. 82 (European Court of Human Rights), § 79; Malone v United Kingdom, Judgment of 2 Aug 1984, [1984] Series A No. 82 (European Court of Human Rights), § 67.

Verhey (1992), pp. 160–161.

Van Leuven (2009), p. 440.

See judgment of 17 Oct. 2002, [2002] Journal du droit des jeunes 42 (Labour Court of Appeal of Brussels).

See on this condition: De Schutter (2014), pp. 360–368; Sudre (2012), pp. 226–228; Vande Lanotte and Haeck (2005), pp. 134–138; Van Leuven (2009), p. 128.

Karner v Austria, judgment of 24 July 2003, [2003] Reports IX (European Court of Human Rights), §§ 40–41; Niedzwiecki v Germany, judgment of 25 Oct. 2005, App. No. 58453/00 (European Court of Human Rights), § 32.

Van Leuven (2009), p. 440; Verhey (1992), pp. 166–167.

Raynaud (2003), pp. 228–232; Van Gerven (1987), p. 92; Van Leuven (2009), pp. 440–441; Velaers (2007a), p. 92.

See on this criterion De Schutter (2014), pp. 368–381; McBride (1999), pp. 23 et seq.; Eissen (1995), pp. 65 et seq.; Sudre (2012), pp. 228–241; Vande Lanotte and Haeck (2005), pp. 138–147; Van Leuven (2009), pp. 128 et seq. and 441.

See for these criteria, e.g. Sunday Times v United Kingdom, judgment of 26 April 1979, [1979] Series A No. 30 (European Court of Human Rights), §§ 63–66.

De Prins et al. (2005), p. 9; Sottiaux (2008), p. 240; Van Gerven and Lierman (2010), p. 546. See also Van Drooghenbroeck (2001), pp. 119–135: this author stresses that the European Court of Human Rights constantly pursues a balancing of interests, even if the protection of particular human rights seems to have an absolute character according to the text of the provisions (e.g. Arts. 3 or 7 ECHR).

De Schutter (2014), p. 368.

Handyside v United Kingdom, judgment of 7 Dec. 1976, [1976] Series A No. 24 (European Court of Human Rights), § 48; Barthold v Germany, judgment of 25 March 1985, [1985] Series A No. 90 (European Court of Human Rights), § 55; Norris v Ireland, judgment of 26 Oct. 1988, [1988] Series A No. 142 (European Court of Human Rights), § 48; Sunday Times v United Kingdom, judgment of 26 Nov. 1991, [1991] Series A No. 217 (European Court of Human Rights), § 50; Keegan v United Kingdom, judgment of 18 July 2006, App. No. 28867/03 (European Court of Human Rights), § 30.

Olsson v Sweden, judgment of 24 March 1988, [1988] Series A No. 130 (European Court of Human Rights), § 67.

Ost and Van Drooghenbroeck (2005), p. 37; Raynaud (2003), pp. 257 et seq.; Van Leuven (2009), p. 441; Velaers (2007a), p. 105; Verhey (1992), pp. 177–179.

Van Leuven (2009), p. 442; Velaers (2007a), p. 105.

Ibid.

Sudre (2012), p. 231.

Henrard (2008), p. 266; Van Gerven and Lierman (2010), p. 546.

See for an analysis: Sudre (2012), pp. 234–241; Vande Lanotte and Haeck (2005), pp. 143 and 146–147; Van Leuven (2009), p. 441.

100

E.g. Dudgeon v United Kingdom, judgment of 22 Oct. 1981, [1981] Series A No. 59 (European Court of Human Rights), § 52 (right to have homosexual relations); Johansen v Norway, judgment of 7 Aug. 1996, [1996] Reports III (European Court of Human Rights), § 64 (parental rights and right to access to child).

101

E.g. Castells v Spain, judgment of 23 April 1992, [1992] Series A No. 236 (European Court of Human Rights), § 43 (freedom of press); UCP of Turkey and others v Turkey, judgment of 30 Jan. 1998, [1998] Reports I (European Court of Human Rights) (freedom of association of political parties).

102

E.g. Abdulaziz, Cabalez and Balkandali v United Kingdom, judgment of 28 May 1985, [1985] Series A No. 94 (European Court of Human Rights), § 78. See Henrard (2008), pp. 266–267; Sottiaux (2008), p. 241; Van Gerven and Lierman (2010), p. 547.

103

Sunday Times v United Kingdom, judgment of 26 Nov. 1991, [1991] Series A No. 217 (European Court of Human Rights), § 59.

104

Handyside v United Kingdom, judgment of 7 Dec. 1976, [1976] Series A No. 24 (European Court of Human Rights), § 48.

105

Sudre (2012), pp. 236–237.

106

Powell and Rayner v United Kingdom, judgment of 21 Feb. 1990, [1990] Series A No. 172 (European Court of Human Rights), § 44; Chapman v United Kingdom, judgment of 18 Jan. 2001, [2001] Reports I (European Court of Human Rights), § 91.

107

E.g. Ireland v United Kingdom, judgment of 18 Jan. 1978, Series A No. 25 (European Court of Human Rights), § 207; Branningan and Mc Bride v United Kingdom, judgment of 26 May 1993, [1993] Series A No. 258-B (European Court of Human Rights), § 43.

108

Van Gerven and Lierman (2010), p. 547; Viout (1995), p. 192.

109

E.g. Christine Goodwin v United Kingdom, judgment of 11 July 2002, [2002] Reports VI (European Court of Human Rights), §§ 73–75.

110

Van Drooghenbroeck (2001), p. 32; Van Gerven (1982–83), p. 970; Van Leuven (2009), p. 442.

111

Van Gerven (1995), pp. 14–15; Van Gerven (1992), p. 307; Van Gerven (2004), pp. 279–280; Van Gerven and Lierman (2010), p. 551.

112

Van Leuven (2009), p. 442.

113

Ibid., p. 443.

114

Van Gerven and Lierman (2010), p. 551.

115

Ibid.

116

Dirix (2007), p. 51; Hannequart (1995), p. 127; Rochette (1971), p. 234; Van Gerven (2004), p. 281; Van Gerven (1997), p. 193; Van Gerven and Lierman (2010), p. 551; Van Leuven (2009), p. 445.

117

Van Leuven (2009), p. 445.

118

See on these origins in German law: Schwarze (2005), p. 685.

119

See Van Drooghenbroeck (2001), p. 32; Van Gerven (1992), p. 308; Van Gerven (1995), p. 15.

120

See in this sense Spielmann (1995), p. 28: the concept of good faith receives a more concrete content through the intermediate of fundamental rights as defined by the Constitution or the international treaties.

121

Van Leuven (2009), p. 449.

122

Ibid., p. 450.

123

Ibid., p. 451.

124

Van Gerven (1991), pp. 84–85; Theunis (1997), p. 178.

125

E.g. K.A. and A.D. v Belgium, judgment of 17 February 2005, App. No. 42758/98 and 45558/99 (European Court of Human Rights), § 83 (in the frame of an agreement concerning sadomasochistic practices: the national court had criminally convicted one of the parties for extremely violent sexual practices. The European Court of Human Rights ruled that this interference with the party’s right to respect for a private life and to dispose of his own body was pursued with a legitimate aim, namely the protection of the right to respect for a private life of the other party that did no longer agree with the sexual practices).

126

Van Leuven (2009), p. 453.

127

Dirix (2007), p. 63; Van Leuven (2009), p. 453.

128

Van Gerven (2004), pp. 281–282; Van Leuven (2009), p. 454.

129

Dirix (2007), p. 39.

130

Dirix (2007), p. 39; Van Leuven (2009), p. 454.

131

Van Gerven (2004), p. 282.

132

Pla and Puncernau v Andorra, judgment of 13 July 2004, App. No. 69498/01 (European Court of Human Rights), § 59.

133

Dirix (1982), p. 80; Theunis (1997), p. 179; Van Leuven (2009), p. 458.

134

Fuentes Bobo v Spain, judgment of 27 Feb. 2000, [2001] Reports VI (European Court of Human Rights), § 38 (in the frame of a labour contract).

135

De Ly (1992), pp. 1145–1146; Dirix (1982), pp. 50–51; Theunis (1997), p. 178; Van Gerven (1989), pp. 24–25; Van Leuven (2009), pp. 458–459.

136

Hannequart (1995), p. 130; Van Gerven and Lierman (2010), pp. 546–547; Van Leuven (2009), pp. 443–444.

137

E.g. Powell and Rayner v United Kingdom, judgment of 21 Feb. 1990, [1990] Series A No. 172 (European Court of Human Rights), § 44; Branningan and McBride v United Kingdom, judgment of 26 May 1993, [1993] Series A No. 258-B (European Court of Human Rights), § 59; Hatton v United Kingdom, judgment of 8 July 2003, [2003] Reports VIII (European Court of Human Rights), § 100.

138

Hatton v United Kingdom, judgment of 8 July 2003, [2003] Reports VIII (European Court of Human Rights), § 123.

139

Van Leuven (2009), pp. 446–447.

140

Theunis (1997), pp. 176–177; Van Leuven (2009), p. 447.

141

De Prins et al. (2005), p. 279; Tison (2002), p. 710; Theunis (1997), p. 177; Van Leuven (2009), p. 447.

142

Dirix (1982), p. 56.

143

Stijns (1990), p. 39; Stijns (2005b), p. 68.

144

Van Gerven and Lierman (2010), p. 547; Van Leuven (2009), pp. 447 and 449.

145

Theunis (1997), p. 178; Van Leuven (2009), p. 447.

146

Van Leuven (2009), p. 458.

147

De Schutter (2014), p. 518; Velaers (2007b), p. 147. See e.g. Öllinger v Austria, judgment of 29 June 2006, App. No. 76900/01 (European Court of Human Rights) (compromise between the applicant’s right to freedom of peaceful assembly and of expression, and another association’s right to protection against disturbance of its assembly).

148

Velaers (2007b), p. 147. See e.g. Appleby and others v United Kingdom, judgment of 6 May 2003, [2003] Reports VI (European Court of Human Rights), §§ 47–48 (concerning the owner of a private shopping mall who refused the applicants to distribute leaflets and to collect signatures within the premises of the shopping mall. The European Court of Human Rights considered that the applicants had alternative means to communicate their views to their fellow citizens, e.g. through a campaign in the media or by obtaining individual permission from businesses within the shopping mall. Thus, the state did not fail in any positive obligation to restrict the right to private property of the owner of the shopping mall in order to protect the applicants’ right to freedom of expression).

149

Van Leuven (2009), p. 460.

150

Ibid.

151

Appleby and others v United Kingdom, judgment of 6 May 2003, [2003] Reports VI (European Court of Human Rights), §§ 47–48; Van Leuven (2009), pp. 460–461.

152

Law of 10 May 2007 to combat certain forms of discrimination, Belgian State Gazette 30 May 2007 (hereafter ‘General Anti-discrimination Law’); Law of 10 May 2007 to combat discrimination between men and women, Belgian State Gazette 30 May 2007 (hereafter ‘Gender Law’); Law of 10 May 2007 to modify the Law of 30 July 1981 to punish certain racist or xenophobe acts, Belgian State Gazette 30 May 2007 (hereafter ‘Anti-racism Law’). See for a clear overview of these anti-discrimination laws: Jansen (2011), pp. 387 et seq.

153

The closed lists were not nullified by the Constitutional Court (see supra, Judgment of 12 Feb. 2009, No. 17/2009, B.13 et seq.). In a second ruling, the Court partially nullified Arts. 3 and 4.4 of the General Anti-discrimination Law regarding its omission of the ground of ‘union citizenship’ (Judgment of 2 April 2009, No. 64/2009, B.8.16).

154

Discrimination is prohibited on the following grounds: Article 3 of the Anti-racism Law: nationality, so-called race, complexion, origin or national or ethnic descent; Article 3 of the Gender Law: gender; Article 4 of that law equals gender with: pregnancy, childbirth, motherhood and trans-sexuality; Article 3 of the General Anti-discrimination Law: age, sexual orientation, civil status, birth, wealth, religious beliefs, ideology, political views, language, current and future state of health, handicap, a physical or genetic feature and social descent, and, added by the Constitutional court, union membership (Judgment of 2 April 2009, No. 64/2009, B.8.16).

155

Article 20 General Anti-discrimination Law, Article 18 Anti-racism Law, and Article 25 Gender Law grant the judge the power to order the cessation of the discrimination.

156

Article 5, s. 1 Anti-racism Law, Article 6, s. 1 Gender Law, and Article 5 s. 1 General Anti-discrimination Law.

157

De Boeck (2003), pp. 418 et seq.; Jansen (2011), p. 388.

158

Dambre (2004), pp. 321 and 334–335; De Boeck (2003), pp. 424–430; Jansen (2011), p. 388.

159

Article 13 Anti-racism Law, Article 15 General Anti-discrimination Law, and Article 20 Gender Law.

160

Stijns and Jansen (2013), p. 11, footnote 75; Van Oevelen and Cauffman (2013), pp. 126–127.

161

Judgment of 22 Oct. 1992, [1992–93] Rechtskundig Weekblad 541 (Civil Court of First Instance of Antwerp); see for an analysis of this case: Van Gerven (2004), pp. 282–283.

162

Judgment of 12 March 1980, [1981] Mouvement communal 5 (Justice of Peace of Tubize).

163

Judgment of 26 Oct. 1992, [1993] Sociaalrechtelijke kronieken 84 (Labour Court of First Instance of Charleroi). See on these cases: Vanderschot (2006), pp. 62–63; Van Oevelen (1995), p. 393.

164

Judgment of 7 Oct. 2011, [2011] 1 Pasicrisie 2148 (Cour de cassation).

165

Van Gerven and Lierman (2010), pp. 390, 404–405 and 423; Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 76. See also Cornelis (2000), p. 304; Swaenepoel (2011), pp. 368–369. For France: Ghestin et al. (1994), p. 755.

166

Cornelis (2000), p. 306; Stijns (1990), p. 39. For France: Ghestin et al. (1994), p. 755.

167

Stijns (1990), pp. 39–40; Stijns and Jansen (2013), p. 5.

168

Stijns and Jansen (2013), p. 7.

169

Romain (2002), pp. 229 et seq.

170

Stijns and Jansen (2013), p. 13; Van Oevelen and Cauffman (2013), p. 104.

171

A reparation in natura would amount to a forced conclusion of the contract, which seems to be incompatible with the freedom to contract. In this sense: De Boeck (2003), p. 432; Stijns and Jansen (2013), p. 8; Van Oevelen and Cauffman (2008), p. 455.

172

Judgment of 27 Oct. 1981, [1982] Journal des juges de paix 171 (Justice of Peace of Tubize); see for an analysis: Van Leuven (2006), pp. 180–181. Moreover, the court found that the landlord had violated Article 8 ECHR for evicting the tenant for the sole reason that he had accommodated people who were not mentioned in the tenancy contract.

173

Judgment of 15 Feb. 1995, [1997] Journal des juges de paix 164 (Justice of Peace of Uccle); Judgment of 6 March 1995, [1996] Revue générale de droit civil belge 296 (Justice of Peace of Ixelles); Judgment of 15 March 1995, [1997] Journal des juges de paix 166 (Justice of Peace of Uccle); see for a discussion: De Vos (2010), pp. 158–159.

174

Judgment of 17 Dec. 1982, [1985] Journal des tribunaux 529 (Civil Court of First Instance of Nivelles); Judgment of 29 Feb. 1984, [1985] Journal des tribunaux 529 (Civil Court of First Instance of Brussels); Judgment of 25 Feb. 1988, [1989] Revue de jurisprudence de Liège, Mons et Bruxelles 1132 (Civil Court of Appeal of Brussels); Judgment of 20 Nov. 1990, [1994] Iuvis 193 (Civil Court of Appeal of Mons).

175

Judgment of 17 Dec. 1985, [1986] Jurisprudence de Liège 98 (Justice of Peace of Bouillon). See for a discussion: Van Leuven (2006), p. 180.

176

Judgment of 14 Oct. 2010, [2010] 1 Pasicrisie 2643 (Cour de cassation); see on this case: Stijns and Jansen (2013), pp. 29–30.

177

Judgment of 14 April 1994, [1994] 1 Pasicrisie 365 (Cour de cassation); Judgment of 30 April 2004, [2004] 1 Pasicrisie 744 (Cour de cassation); Judgment of 20 April 2006, [2006] 1 Pasicrisie 884 (Cour de cassation); Stijns and Jansen (2013), p. 30; Van Ommeslaghe (2013), pp. 817–820.

178

Judgment of 12 May 2005, [2007] Journal des juges de paix 158 (Justice of Peace of Roeselare).

179

Judgment of 7 Aug. 2007, [2007] Revue régionale de droit 75 (Labour Court of Appeal of Liège).

180

Judgment of 28 March 2002, [2002] Revue de jurisprudence de Liège, Mons et Bruxelles, 1107 (Civil Court of First Instance of Liège).

181

Judgment of 20 March 1997, [1998] Journal des juges de paix 295 (Justice of Peace of Wolvertem); Judgment of 23 March 2001, [2001–02] Algemeen juridisch tijdschrift 146 (Civil Court of Appeal of Ghent); Judgment of 15 April 2002, [2003] Echos 183 (Justice of Peace of Mouscron-Comines-Warneton); Judgment of 17 Dec. 2002, [2005] Tijdschrift voor Gentse rechtspraak 192 (Justice of Peace of Oostende). See for an analysis: De Vos (2010), pp. 160–162; Van Leuven (2006), pp. 188–189.

182

Judgment of 11 Feb. 1961, [1961] Journal des tribunaux 686 (Civil Court of First Instance of Brussels).

183

Van Oevelen (1982), pp. 122–123; Van Oevelen (1995), p. 386.

184

See the example given in section 3.4.1 concerning the discrimination on the basis of religious views: Judgment of 26 Oct. 1992, [1993] Sociaalrechtelijke kronieken 84 (Civil Court of First Instance of Antwerp); Judgment of 1 March 1995, [1996] Sociaalrechtelijke kronieken 409 (Labour Court of First Instance of Hasselt). See also Judgment of 17 Oct. 2002, [2002] Journal du droit des jeunes 44 (Labour Court of Appeal of Brussels): the court found that an employee did not abuse her right to terminate a labour contract and did not lose her right to unemployment allowances, since the position ceased to be compatible with imperative clothing prescriptions imposed by the Islamic religion to which the employee had been converted.

185

Judgment of 18 April 1989, [1989] Limburgs rechtsleven 105 (Labour Court of Appeal of Antwerp); Van Leuven (2006), p. 188; Van Oevelen (1995), pp. 389–390.

186

Judgment of 3 June 2004, [2004] Nieuw juridisch weekblad 881 (Labour Court of Appeal of Antwerp); Van Leuven (2009), p. 470. On that basis, the court ruled that a woman had the right to refuse the position at issue on the basis of compelling religious clothing prescriptions which imposed the wearing of a headscarf.

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Titel: The Role of the General Principle of the Prohibition of Abuse of Rights in the Enforcement of Human Rights in Contract Law: A Belgian Law Perspective
verfasst von: Annekatrien Lenaerts
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: The Constitutional Dimension of Contract Law
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-49842-3

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-49843-0

Copyright-Jahr: 2017
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49843-0_4

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