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2021 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

6. The Spectrum of Self and Other in Legal Categories in Europe

verfasst von : Magdalena Smieszek

Erschienen in: The Evolving Psyche of Law in Europe

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

The site of struggles in Europe that Elspeth Guild describes, this transforming yet persistent crisis about insiders and outsiders, even if seen as temporary related to particular contexts, has a complex set of factors that challenge European self-definitions. Within this identity crisis ridden context in Europe, the aim of this chapter is primarily to give closer attention to this legal categorization and point to its psychological nature in relation to laws that distinguish rights of humans when placed in certain categories within the Europe-wide frameworks. Categorizations in the form of legal status, separating nationals, migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers, are embedded within international and national laws. The contention here is that laws with a purpose of inclusion and exclusion that rely on categories, as is the case with the concept of European citizenship and asylum laws, have a psychological source and a psychological impact that is both direct and far-reaching. Categorizations that the laws rely on, create, and reinforce, are not simply abstract and disembodied in the form of law, rather the process of categorizing is deeply embedded in the human psyche.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Common European Identity Formation and Asylum

Nächstes Kapitel The Evaluative Legal Concept of Dignity: Towards Psychological Inclusion of Asylum Seekers in Europe

Guild (2004), p. 252.

Mügge and van der Haar (2016), p. 79; Massey (2007), p. 7.

Hathaway (1990), pp. 151–157; Hathaway (1991), p. 6. He has since then walked back on that position and focused more on the intersection of refugee law and human rights/humanitarian law.

Goodman and Speer (2007), pp. 165–185; Fowler (1991); Bourdieu (1991), p. 22. 3.

Mügge and van der Haar (2016), p. 88.

Ibid at p. 80.

Ibid at p. 88.

Ibid.

Goodman and Speer (2007); Lynn and Lea (2003), p. 434.

Schlegel (2019) Pre-print of forthcoming publication.

Dovidio et al. (2005), pp. 246–247.

Tajfel and Turner (1979), pp. 33–47; Tajfel (1981), p. 254.

Ibid.

Turner (1985), pp. 77–121; Nickerson and Louis (2008), pp. 796–817.

Ibid Turner (1985); Taijfel (1969), pp. 79–97; Abrams (1985), pp. 65–74.

Otten and Moskowitz (2000), pp. 77–89; Hogg and Hains (1996), pp. 295–309.

Park and Rothbart (1982), pp. 1051–1068; Wilder (1981), pp. 213–257; Howard and Rothbart (1980), pp. 301–319; Worchel et al. (1998), pp. 389–413; Insko et al. (2001), pp. 95–111.

Abrams et al. (2005), p. 3 of 355 (Kindle edition).

Semynov et al. (2004), pp. 681–701.

Ibid; Branscombe et al. (1999), pp. 135–149.

Karolewski (2010), p. 47.

Ibid; Prentoulis (2001), pp. 196–218.

Karolewski (2010), p. 46.

Hogg and Abrams (1993), pp. 173–190; Mullin and Hogg (1999), pp. 91–102 [cited in:] Nickerson and Louis (2008), p. 797.

This is applied as a conceptual framework of analysis and not as a hypothesis for empirical study, at least not at this stage of research. While there are obvious limits to this analysis in being a mainly conceptual one, this is also an invitation for exploring identified interlinkages in further areas of study.

Stevenson et al. (2015), pp. 192–210; Condor (2011), pp. 193–201.

Stevenson et al. (2015), pp. 1–19.

Ibid at p. 2.

Condor (2011). This is also stated in Lister and Pia (2008), in introducton: “Citizenship is a concept which speaks to the relationship between the individual and political communities. Yet, increasingly in Europe the precise terms of this relationship are subject to the question. What citizenship means is contested among academics, as established liberal theories of citizenship are confronted with communitarian, multicultural and post-national critiques which challenge the conception of what the relationships between individuals and political communities should look like.”

That concept fits into a category when it is related to something it resembles or differentiates itself with – hence membership…in the sense that it has to compare itself to something else to give it value for it to have meaning – ie.to be entrenched “in the mind.

Lister and Pia (2008).

Heater (2004), p. 1.

Isin and Wood (1999), p. 3 referencing Heater (1990).

Isin (2008), p. 6.

Lister and Pia (2008), p. 1.

Etymology online entry for “status”: 1670s, “height” of a situation or condition, later “legal standing of a person” (1791), from Latin status “condition, position, state, manner, attitude” from past participle stem of stare “to stand”. Sense of “standing in one’s society or profession” is from 1820. Status symbol first recorded 1955; status-seeker from 1956. Status-anxiety is from 1959 online at https://www.etymonline.com/word/status.

Adam Waytz, “The Psychology of Social Status” Scientific American (December 8, 2009) onine at https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-psychology-of-social/.

Etymologically, hierarchy refers to “an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being “above” “below”, or “at the same level as” one another.” In essence, a hierarchy is inequality, though the latter has a negative connotation, and the former is seen as inevitable.

Hall (1999), p. 40.

From the fifteenth century Latin reconitio, from the verb recognoscere “know again, recall to mind.” It refers to the “action or process” of “identification of a thing or person from previous encounters or knowledge.” “acknowledgement of the existence, validity or legality” and “appreciation for achievement.”

Isin and Wood (1999), p. 19; Jenkins (1996).

Merriam-Webster Dictionary online at https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/identification.

Isin and Wood (1999).

Ibid.

Ibid at 20.

Lister and Pia (2008), p. 74.

Ibid 75–76.

Ibid.

Heater (1990).

Isin and Wood (1999), p. 3.

Ibid.

Weissbrodt and Devine (2012), p. 94.

Marshall (1965).

Lister and Pia (2008), p. 63.

Karolewski (2010).

Martinello (1995), p. 46.

Lister and Pia (2008), p. 163.

Guild (2004), p. 239.

Article 51 states: “The Council shall, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission, adopt such measures in the field of social security as are necessary to provide freedom of movement for workers […]”

Hafer (2011).

CEC (1974), Bulletin of the EC, 12-1974/7: item 11; Lister and Pia (2008), p. 164; Martinello (1995), p. 38.

Lister and Pia (2008), p. 162.

O’Leary (1999), p. 381.

Article 8(1) European Union, Treaty on European Union (Consolidated Version), Treaty of Maastricht, 7 February 1992, Official Journal of the European Communities C 325/5; 24 December 2002.

Article 8.1 European Union: Council of the European Union, Treaty of Amsterdam Amending the Treaty on European Union, The Treaties Establishing the European Communities and Related Acts, 10 November 1997.

Article 20.

Guild (2014), p. 418 referencing Isin, Englin F. (2012).

Ibid at p. 420.

European Parliament Press Release, “Final Turnout Data for 2019 European Elections Announced” (October 29, 2019) online at https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20191029IPR65301/final-turnout-data-for-2019-european-elections-announced.

Guild (2014), p. 420.

Peters (2005), pp. 741–743 Guild (2014), pp. 419–420.

Commission of the European Communities, Report form the Commission on the Citizenship of the Union COM (93) 702 final, 1.

Hall (1999), p. 49.

Mazuccelli (1997), p. 145; Lister and Pia (2008), p. 164.

Koslowski (1994).

Virdee and McGeever (2018), pp. 1802–1819; Postelnicescu (2016), pp. 203–209; Dennison and Geddes (2018), pp. 1137–1153; Krzyżanowsk (2019), pp. 465–490.

Guild (2014), p. 423.

BEU Citizen, Social Rights of EU Migrants: A Comparative Perspective (July 15, 2015) at p. 5. [hereinafter BEU Citizen report] ‘EU migrant citizens’ are “EU citizens that have migrated to another EU Member State, excluding tourists, cross-border mobile workers or posted workers within the EU.”

Ibid at p. 30.

Pennings (2012), pp. 307–334; BEU Citizen report, supra note 78 at p. 7.

European Commission (2013a) Press Release – Social security benefits: Commission refers UK to Court for incorrect application of EU social security safeguards, Brussels [30 May 2013].

Article 16 European Union, Directive 2004/38/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 29 April 2004 on the right of citizens of the Union and their family members to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States amending Regulation (EEC) No 1612/68 and repealing Directives 64/221/EEC, 68/360/EEC, 72/194/EEC, 73/148/EEC, 75/34/EEC, 75/35/EEC, 90/364/EEC, 90/365/EEC and 93/96/EEC, 29 April 2004, 2004/38/EC.

Kostakopoulou et al. (2014), p. 430.

BEU Citizen report, supra note 78 at p. 5.

Leibfried and Pierson (1995), p. 54; BEU Citizen report, supra note 78 at p. 6.

Guild (2004), p 240. Article 15 of the Charter.

Guild (2014), p. 421; Vonk (2012).

Guild (2014), pp. 421–22.

Cinzia Alcidi and Daniel Gros, “Intra-EU Labour Mobility: From Too Little to Too Much?, EconPol Opinion 17, May 2019 online at https://www.econpol.eu/opinion_17#_ftn1.

Karolewski (2010), p. 46.

Standard Eurobarometer “European citizenship”: Survey requested and co-ordinated by the European Commission, Directorate-General for Communication (European Union, March 2018) [hereainafter Eurobarometer].

Ibid at p. 12. Luxembourg (79%), Poland and Latvia (71% in both countries) and Germany (69%).

Ibid at p. 12. Greece (37% “attached”, vs. 63% “not attached”), the Czech Republic (38% vs. 60%) and Cyprus (39% vs. 60%).

Ibid at p. 9 – “A large majority in all socio-demographic categories feel attached to their city/town/village. Attachment increases with age (from 83% of 15–24 year-olds to 92% among those aged 55+), and decreases slightly with education (94% of those who left school at the age of 15 or earlier and 88% of those who studied up to the age of 20 and beyond); A very large majority of respondents in all the socio-demographic categories also feel attached to their country. This attachment is particularly strong among Europeans aged 55+ (95%) and retired people (95%), as well as managers (95%).”

Ibid at p. 14 “A majority of respondents in 26 EU Member States feel attached to Europe (the same number as in autumn 2017), with the highest levels in Denmark (81%), and Luxembourg and Sweden (80% in both countries). However only a minority of respondents feel attached to Europe in Greece (42% “attached”, vs. 58% “not attached”) and Cyprus (43% vs. 56%); this was also the case in autumn 2017.”

Eurobarometer, supra note 91 at p. 53.

Ibid at p. 60.

Ibid at p. 20.

Ibid at pp. 69 and 79.

100

Ibid at pp. 69 and 76.

101

Lowest scores in Latvia (10% vs. 85%), Estonia (13% vs. 79%), the Czech Republic (14% vs. 82%), Hungary (15% vs. 81%) and Bulgaria (15% vs. 72%).

102

Messing and Ságvári (2018), p. 3.

103

Richard Wike, Bruce Stokes and Katie Simmons, “Europeans Fear a Wave of Refugees More will Mean More Terrorism, Fewer Jobs” Pew Research Centre (11 July 2016) online at https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2016/07/11/europeans-fear-wave-of-refugees-will-mean-more-terrorism-fewer-jobs/ and “Negative Views of Minorities, Refugees Common in EU” online at https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2016/07/11/negative-views-of-minorities-refugees-common-in-eu/.

104

Messing and Ságvári (2018).

105

Sigona (2018), pp. 456–460.

106

Schrover and Moloney (2013), p. 257.

107

Schuster (2003), pp. 233–256.

108

Guild (2004), pp. 202–203.

109

Zolberg et al. (1989), p. 30. Richmond (1993), p. 7; Ghosh (1998), pp. 34–43.

110

Sales (2002), pp. 456–478.

111

Long (2013), pp. 4–26.

112

Sajjad (2018), p. 47; Wilson and Mavelli (2017), p. 11.

113

Ibid Sajjad (2018).

114

Mulvey (2010), p. 443.

115

Goodwin-Gill (2003), pp. 26–27.

116

Goodman and Speer (2007) p. 167; Sales (2002); Lynn and Lea (2003), p. 434; Alice Bloch, “The Importance of Convention Status: A Case Study of the UK” (2001) 6 (1) Sociological Research Online at http://www.socresonline.org.uk/6/1/bloch.html.

117

Goodman and Speer (2007), p. 166.

118

Tuitt (1996), p. 70; Feller (2001), p. 137.

119

Goodman and Speer (2007), p. 168; Sales (2002); Schuster and Bloch (2002), p. 393.

120

Mulvey (2010), p. 11.

121

Foster (2009), Kindle Edition. loc 1144 of 11,966 citing Findley (2001), p. 279.

122

Ibid Foster loc 1144 of 11,966.

123

Ibid Loc 1168 of 11,966

124

Ibid Loc 1181 of 11,966.

125

Ibid.

126

Sajjad (2018), p. 47; Bakewell (2011), pp. 14–28; Roger Zetter, “Protection in Crisis: Forced Migration in a Global Era” Migration Policy Institute (MPI), 2015.

127

Sajjad (2018); Adelson (2004), pp. 1–23; Diop (2014), pp. 67–80.

Sajjad (2018) p. 41.

Ibid p. 42.

Ibid at p. 46.

Ibid; Kumsa (2006), pp. 230–55; McConnell (2013), pp. 967–983; Chimni (1993), pp. 442–60.

132

Emma Haddad, “Who is (not) a Refugee?” EUI Working Paper SPS No. 2004/6.

133

Shacknove (1985), p. 275.

134

Dahlvik (2018), pp. 153–164; Rousseau and Foxen (2010), pp. 70–92.

135

Entry on “identification” in Merriam-Webster dictionary defines it as a “a: psychological orientation of the self in regard to something (such as a person or group) with a resulting feeling of close emotional association. b: a largely unconscious process whereby an individual models thoughts, feelings, and actions after those attributed to an object that has been incorporated as a mental image” online at: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/identification.

136

Rousseau and Foxen (2010); Dahlvik (2018).

137

Dahlvik (2018), p. 158 writes: “..the findings also show that empathy, sympathy and antipathy can play a role in the relation between caseworker and claimant even if the law prescribes impersonality and objectivity.”

138

Maynard-Moody and Musheno (2000), p. 329.

139

Ibid Loc 1168 of 11,966, citing Spijkerboer (2000), pp. 76–77.

140

Ibid Loc 1193.

141

European Union: Council of the European Union, Directive 2011/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for subsidiary protection, and for the content of the protection granted (recast), 20 December 2011, OJ L. 337/9–337/26; 20.12.2011, 2011/95/EU; European Commission Brussels, 13.7.2016 COM(2016) 466 final 2016/0223 (COD) Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for subsidiary protection and for the content of the protection granted and amending Council Directive 2003/109/EC of 25 November 2003 concerning the status of third-country nationals who are long-term residents.

142

Entry on “qualification” in Oxford Dictionary online at https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/qualification.

143

Entry on “qualification” in Merriam Webster Dictionary online at https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/qualification.

144

McAdam (2007), p. 60; Amnesty International EU Office, “Amnesty International’s Comments on the Commission’s Proposal for a Council Directive on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country National and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Are Otherwise in Need of International Protection”, COM (2001) 510 final’ (2 October 2002).

145

Recital 29 in QD, 27 in QR.

146

Recital 30 in QD, 28 in QR.

147

Recital 12 in QD, 7 in QR.

148

Recital 13 in QD, 8 in QR.

Recital 14 in QD.

Recital 15 in QD.

Recital 9 in QR.

An example of a psychological hierarchy is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, but here it refers to the hierarchies humans place in regards to their connections to others; Interesting origins of hierarchy as expressed in the Merriam Webster dictionary:

“The earliest meaning of hierarchy in English has to do with the ranks of different types of angels in the celestial order. The idea of categorizing groups according to rank readily transferred to the organization of priestly or other governmental rule. The word hierarchy is, in fact, related to a number of governmental words in English, such as monarchy, anarchy, and oligarchy, although it itself is now very rarely used in relation to government. The word comes from the Greek hierarchēs, which was formed by combining the words hieros, meaning “supernatural, holy,” and archos, meaning. “ruler.” Hierarchy has continued to spread its meaning beyond matters ecclesiastical and governmental, and today is commonly found used in reference to any one of a number of different forms of graded classification.”

153

European Commission, Proposal for a [recast Qualification Directive] – Explanatory Memorandum, COM (2009) 551, 21 October 2009, 8.

154

Velluti (2014), p. 52; European Council on Refugees and Exiles, Refugee rights subsiding? Europe’s two-tier protection regime and its effect on the rights of beneficiaries, 2016, online at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/58e1fc8e4.html, p. 6. [hereinafter ECRE report 2016] at p 27 referring to Council of the European Union, Proposal for a Qualification Regulation, 5402/1/17 REV 1 ASILE 2 CODEC 59, 21 February 2017, 76, fn. 128.

155

Velluti (2014), referring to Article 24 of the directive.

156

Recital 39.

157

Article 1.

158

European Commission, Proposal for a Qualification Regulation, COM(2016) 467, 13 July 2016; ECRE, Comments on the Commission proposal for a Qualification Regulation, November 2016, 7.

159

ECRE report 2016, supra note 154 at p. 7.

160

Ibid at p. 24.

161

European Parliament, Draft report on the proposal for a Qualification Regulation, PE599.799, 21 February 2017, available at: http://bit.ly/2lCJhmH, Explanatory Statement, 61. “The current practice in the Member States and the very concept of protection does not effective provide grounds for the distinction between the two statuses. In particular the reality shows that the subsidiary protection is based on an unjustified assumption of more temporary nature of protection and limited in its effectiveness.”

162

This underpins the claim that the determination process is a subjective one in spite of objective criteria.

163

ECRE report 2016, supra note 154 at pp. 11–12.

164

ECRE, “Asylum statistics 2017: Shifting Patterns, Persisting Disparities” (19 January 2018) online at https://www.ecre.org/asylum-statistics-2017-shifting-patterns-persisting-disparities/.

165

Informationsverbund Asyl und Migration, “Differential Treatment of Specific Nationalities in the Procedure: Germany” online at http://www.asylumineurope.org/reports/country/germany/asylum-procedure/treatment-specific-nationalities. [hereinafter Informationsverbund Asyl und Migration report]

166

Council of the European Union, Council conclusions on convergence in asylum decision practices, 8210/16 ASIM 58, 22 April 2016.

167

ECRE report 2016, p. 13.

168

Ibid at p. 12.

169

European Observatory on Homelessness Asylum Seekers, Refugees and Homelessness, “Asylum Seekers, Refugees and Homelessness: The Humanitarian Crisis and the Homelessness Sector in Europe” Comparative Studies on Homelessness (Brussels – December 2016).

170

European Union: Council of the European Union, Directive 2013/33/EU of the European Parliament and Council of 26 June 2013 laying down standards for the reception of applicants for international protection (recast), 29 June 2013, OJ L. 180/96–105/32; 29.6.2013, 2013/33/EU, online at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/51d29db54.html; European Commission, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the laying down standards for the reception of applicants for international protection (recast) Brussels, 13.7.2016 COM(2016) 465 final 2016/0222 (COD).

171

Human Rights Watch, “At Least Let Them Work The Denial of Work Authorization and Assistance for Asylum Seekers in the United States” (2013) online at: http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/us1113_asylum_forUPload.pdf.

172

Informationsverbund Asyl und Migration report, supra note 165, write: “For instance, 95.8% of Syrians had been granted refugee status in 2015, this rate dropped to 56.4% in 2016 and 35% in 2017. Conversely, the rate of Syrians being granted subsidiary protection rose from 0.1% in 2015 to 41.2% in 2016 and 56% in 2017. The policy change at the BAMF coincided with a legislative change in March 2016, according to which Family Reunification was suspended for beneficiaries of subsidiary protection until March 2018, with suspension recently being prolonged until July 2018 and becoming subject to strong restrictions after that date. Tens of thousands of beneficiaries of subsidiary protection have appealed against the authorities’ decisions in order to gain refugee status (“upgrade-appeals”), with 55,538 pending appeals by Syrians out of a total 71,084 pending upgrade appeals at the end of 2017.” Online at: http://www.asylumineurope.org/reports/country/germany/asylum-procedure/treatment-specific-nationalities. ECRE report 2016, supra note 154 at p. 13: “Positive decisions by the BAMF for all nationalities shifted from 137,136 refugee status (55%) and 1707 subsidiary protection (0.7%) in 2015, to 256,136 refugee status (42.1%) and 153,700 subsidiary protection (25.3%) in 2016.” “Namely Syrians, who had a mere 0.06% subsidiary protection rate in 2015, witnessed a subsidiary protection rate of 42% in 2016. This has led to increasing “upgrade appeals” by subsidiary protection holders against refusals of refugee status, in which most German Administrative Courts and High Administrative Courts have accepted that Syrians were entitled to refugee status.”

173

Directive 2003/86/EC of the Council of 22 September 2003 on the right to family reunification.

Recital 4 states that reunification facilitates integration because it “helps to create sociocultural stability”; UNHCR, Note on the integration of refugees in the European Union, May 2007, notes taht “[f]amily members can reinforce the social support system of refugees” (para. 35).

174

European Council on Refugees and Exiles, “Withdrawal of reception conditions of asylum seekers: An appropriate effective or legal sanction?” (July 2018, AIDA Asylum Information Database). [hereinafter ECRE report 2018]; Reception Conditions Directive Recital 25: “the possibility of abuse of the reception system should be restricted by specifying the circumstances in which material reception conditions for applicants may be reduced or withdrawn while at the same time ensuring a dignified standard of living for all applicants.”

175

Ibid Recital 25.

176

Article 20 (5): “5. Decisions for reduction or withdrawal of material reception conditions or sanctions referred to in paragraphs 1, 2, 3 and 4 of this Article shall be taken individually, objectively and impartially and reasons shall be given. Decisions shall be based on the particular situation of the person concerned, especially with regard to persons covered by Article 21, taking into account the principle of proportionality. Member States shall under all circumstances ensure access to health care in accordance with Article 19 and shall ensure a dignified standard of living for all applicant.”

177

ECRE report 2018, supra note 174 at p. 1.

178

Recital 28: “Member States should have the power to introduce or maintain more favourable provisions for third-country nationals and stateless persons who ask for international protection from a Member State.”

179

Recital 24: “To ensure that the material support provided to applicants complies with the principles set out in this Directive, it is necessary that Member States determine the level of such support on the basis of relevant references. That does not mean that the amount granted should be the same as for nationals. Member States may grant less favourable treatment to applicants than to nationals as specified in this Directive.”

180

Torres and Young (2016), p. 142.

181

Ibid at 146.

182

Söhn (2014).

183

Schuster (2011), pp. 1392–1407; Robila (2018).

184

Ibid Robila.

185

Ibid at p. 2.

186

Craig et al. (2009), pp. 351–354: “Psychiatric surveys of refugees indicated that 9% of adults were diagnosed with PTSD, 4% with generalized anxiety disorder and 5% with major depression, and 11% of children with PTSD” at p 352.

187

Stenmark et al. (2013), pp. 641–647.

188

Robila (2018), p. 3.

189

Ibid at p. 7; Renner and Salem (2009), pp. 99–108; Bloch et al. (2000), pp. 169–190.

190

Robiola at p. 8; Hebebrand et al. (2016), pp. 1–6.

191

Haasen et al. (2008), pp. 10–13: In the study, 54% of asylum seekers and 41.4% of refugees met the PTSD; as high as 84.6% asylum seekers reported anxiety and 63.1% of them reported depression, while for illegal migrants both anxiety and depression were at 47.6%.”

192

Robila (2018), p. 12: “An evaluation of the associations between the Gross National Product (GNP) of the immigration country as a moderating factor for depression, anxiety and PTSD indicated that the rates for depression were 20% among labor migrants vs. 44% among refugees and for anxiety 21% among migrants vs. 40% among refugees and higher GNP in the country of immigration was related to lower depression and/or anxiety in migrants but not in refugees”; Lindert et al. (2009), pp. 246–257.

193

Robila (2018), p. 11; Phillimore and Goodson (2006), pp. 1715–1736.

194

Richard Cholewinski, “Overview of Social and Economic Rights of Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Europe: International Obligations – Education and Employment. Paper presented at ECRE conference on Social and Economic Rights of Refugees and Asylum Seekers” in Odessa, Ukraine November 18–19, 2004.

195

Ibid.

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Titel: The Spectrum of Self and Other in Legal Categories in Europe
verfasst von: Magdalena Smieszek
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: The Evolving Psyche of Law in Europe
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-74412-0

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-74413-7

Copyright-Jahr: 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74413-7_6

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