nach oben

Erschienen in:

2018 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

The Trade and Environment Debate on the Regulation of Energy Subsidies in the WTO: What Kept Fossil Fuel Subsidies Off the Radar Screen?

verfasst von : Henok Birhanu Asmelash

Erschienen in: Energy Law and Economics

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

Einloggen

Aktivieren Sie unsere intelligente Suche, um passende Fachinhalte oder Patente zu finden.

search-config

KI-gestützte Suche

Aus

Abstract

The multilateral rules on subsidies have come under intense scrutiny in the wake of rising trade disputes over renewable energy subsidies. The sudden surge in the number of trade disputes and countervailing duty actions against renewable energy support programs has raised concerns that the multilateral subsidy rules may stand in the way of global efforts to promote the development and deployment of renewable energy sources. This paper shares these concerns, but argues that they are only one side of the environmental concerns that arise from the regulation of energy subsidies in the multilateral trading system. Energy subsidies play a dual role from a sustainable energy transition perspective. While renewable energy subsidies tend to help accelerate the transition, fossil fuel subsidies do exactly the opposite. If the multilateral subsidy rules are to help accelerate but not hinder the transition, then they should not only allow governments to subsidise renewables but also discourage them from subsidising fossil fuels. However, the regulation (or lack of) of fossil fuel subsidies in the multilateral trading system receives relatively little attention in the scholarly, policy and judicial debate on trade and environment. This paper attempts to answer why the fossil fuel subsidy issue receives scant scholarly attention.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Vorheriges Kapitel Consumer Protection in Energy Markets: Selected Insights from Behavioural Law and Economics and Regulatory Practice

Nächstes Kapitel Promoting Renewable Energies Through State Aid, a Reform is Required

Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994, 15 April 1994, Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Annex 1A (SCM Agreement).

The WTO disputes over renewable energy subsidies are: Canada-Renewable Energy; Canada-FIT; China Wind Power Equipment; US- Countervailing Measures (China); India-Solar Cells; EU – Biodiesel; EU-Renewable Energy Generation Sector; and US-Renewable Energy. For the list of countervailing measures against renewable energy subsidies from 2008 to 2012, see UNCTAD (2014).

WTO (2013).

See, e.g., Cosbey and Mavroidis (2014), p. 11; Rubini (2012), p. 525; Shadikhodjaev (2015), p. 479; Simmons (2014), p. 422.

The latest estimate from the International Energy Agency (IEA) puts fossil fuel conception subsidies at USD 347 and renewable energy subsidies at USD 167. See IEA (2016).

See G-20 Leaders’ Statement: The Pittsburgh Summit, September 24–25, 2009 (Pittsburgh Agreement).

See Asmelash (2016).

See IEA (2012), p. 25; McGlade and Ekins (2015), p. 187.

See Asmelash (2015), p. 261.

See Kulovesi (2011), p. 85 (noting that ‘the origins of the contemporary debate on trade and the environment can be traced to the two GATT reports in the Tuna-Dolphin dispute’).

GATT (1991, 1994).

On the US-Tuna Panel rulings, see Thaggert (1994); Kingsbury (1994), p. 1.

See Kulovesi (2011), p. 87; Joseph (1994).

See Esty (1994), p. 35.

See, e.g., General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994, 15 April 1994, Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Annex 1A (GATT 1994), Article XX; Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, 15 April 1994, Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Annex 1C (TRIPS), Article 17; Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994, 15 April 1994, Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Annex 1A (TBT Agreement), Article 2.2; SCM Agreement (n 1), Article 8.

See Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, opened for signature 15 April 1994 (entered into force 1 January 1995), para.1 of the preamble.

The Marrakesh Ministerial Decision on Trade and Environment, MTN/TNC/45(MIN), adopted 15 April 1994.

See Charnovitz (2007a), p. 19 (‘one can hardly doubt that environment is now part of the WTO’s mandate’).

See Pauwelyn (2004); Charnovitz (2007b), p. 685.

WTO (1996).

WTO (1996), pp. 22 & 29.

WTO (1998).

WTO (2001), Article 215.

See Kulovesi (2011), p. 101.

Kulovesi (2014), p. 55.

US-Gasoline (n 21), at 17; US-Shrimp (n 23).

See Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (adopted 11 December 1997, entered into force 16 February 2005) 2303 UNTS 148 (Kyoto Protocol).

See Pauwelyn (2013); Kulovesi (2014), pp. 72 et seq.

There was some talk about introducing BCAs in the EU after the establishment of the EU Emission Trading Scheme (ETS), but it has never gained serious political backing. See Pauwelyn (2013); Kulovesi (2014), p. 75.

As Kulovesi pointed out, the trade and environment conflict represented by the WTO-consistency of trade-related environmental measures such as BCAs is more imagined than real. See Kulovesi (2014).

See Stiglitz (2006).

Bhagwati and Mavroidis (2007), p. 299.

See Jegou and Rubini (2011).

WTO (2017).

Only a handful of scholars commented on the environmental implications of the SCM Agreement before 2010. The most notable among these are: Howse and Eliason (2009); Howse (2006), p. 500; Green (2006), p. 377; Bigdeli (2009); Bigdeli (2008), p. 78; Ayala and Gallagher (2009), p. 131.

SCM Agreement, Article 1.1.

SCM Agreement, Article 1.2 and 2.

SCM Agreement, Article 3.

SCM Agreement, Article 5.

SCM Agreement, Article 8.

SCM Agreement, Article 31.

Canada-Renewable Energy/FIT (n 3).

Bigdeli (2016), p. 121.

See Canada-Renewable Energy/FIT (n 3), para 5.128 & 5.246.

Weber and Koch (2015), p. 779.

For a polemical criticism, see Rubini (2014), p. 895; Cosbey and Mavroidis (2014); Rubini 2015, p. 211.

See Request for Consultations by the United States, India – Certain Measures Relating to Solar Cells and Solar Modules (India – Solar Cells), WT/DS456/1, G/L/1023 G/TRIMS/D/35, G/SCM/D96/1, 11 February 2013; Request for Consultations by the United States, India – Certain Measures Relating to Solar Cells and Solar Modules (India – Solar Cells), WT/DS456/1/Add1, G/L/1023/Add1, G/TRIMS/D/35/Add1, G/SCM/D96/1/Add1, 13 February 2014; Request for Consultation by India, United States – Certain Measures Relating to the Energy Sector (US-Renewable Energy), WT/DS510/1, G/L/1149, 19 September 2016.

See Cosbey and Mavroidis (2014), p. 12.

See, e.g., Bacchus (2012).

Shadikhodjaev (2015), p. 499.

For further discussion on the arguments for and against the application of GATT Article XX to the SCM Agreement, see Rubini (2012).

See Howse (2008); see also Havel and Sanchez (2014), p. 382.

On the applicability of GATT Article XX outside the GATT, see Shadikhodjaev (2015), pp. 499–505; Feld and Switzer (2012), p. 16.

This view broadly echoes the concern (of economists) that exceptions or ‘safe harbours’ aimed at promoting public goods can be abused and end up sheltering subsidies that are counterproductive to providing public goods. See Sykes (2003), pp. 22–23.

See Leal-Arcas and Filis (2015), p. 50 (‘the policy space appears to be preserved for WTO members to take measures to support environmental goals, including the promotion of renewables’); Grigorova (2015), p. 17.

See, e.g., Rubini (2017); Giupponi (2015), p. 21.

See Charnovitz (2014), p. 73.

Rubini (2017).

Paul Krugman is often quoted for suggesting that the proper policy response to a foreign state’s subsidies is ‘to send a thank you note to the embassy’. See Sykes (2007), p. 107. For the economic case for and against the multilateral regulation of subsidies, see Sykes (2010), p. 473.

See, e.g., Howse (2013); Rubini (2017); Cosbey and Mavroidis (2014); Cottier (2014), p. 40; Bigdeli (2011), p. 2; Shadikhodjaev (2015); Wu and Salzman (2014), p. 401; Farah and Cima (2014), p. 515.

See Casier and Moerenhout (2013). This should not be seen as a criticism of the dispute settlement mechanism, which is rightly described as the ‘crown jewel’ of the multilateral trading system. For a recent account of the role played by the dispute settlement mechanism in strengthening the multilateral trading system, see Howse (2016), p. 9.

See, e.g., Greenwald (2003), p. 113; Cartland et al. (2012), p. 979.

This was evident in the recent reappointment controversy. See Shaffer (2016).

The Appellate Body’s interpretation will not save renewable energy subsidies such as capital grants, government loans at preferential rates and loan guarantees for technologies that produce electricity from renewable energy sources (e.g. solar energy and wind power) from legal challenges under the SCM Agreement.

See Lewis (2014), p. 10; Sugathan (2013), p. 23.

See IEA (2015) and Coady et al. (2015).

See Burniaux and Chateau (2014), Clements et al. (2013), Coady et al. (2017), Larsen and Shah (1992) and Schwanitz et al. (2014).

Larsen and Shah (1992).

See Depledge (2000), pp. 23–24.

See Kyoto Protocol (n 28).

See Asmelash (2016).

See Pittsbrugh Agreement (n 6); G7 Ise-Shima Leaders’ Declaration: G7 Ise-Shima Summit, 26–27 May 2016 (Ise-Shima Agreement).

I have discussed this elsewhere, see Asmelash (2017).

Lamy (2013a).

GATT Ministerial Declaration adopted on 29 November 1982, L/5424, p. 14.

See Milthorp and David (2012).

Doha Ministerial Declaration (20 November 2001) WT/MIN(01)/DEC/1, paras 28 & 31. For a detailed account of the negotiations, see Chen (2010).

See Asmelash (2015), pp. 279–282 (and the citation therein).

See Asmelash (2015), pp. 282–284.

For a general discussion on the degree of freedom that legal academics enjoy in comparison to judges and lawyers, see Schlag (2014), p. 235; Bianchi (2016), p. 6 et seq.

In discussing the role of legal academics in responding to judicial activism by the European Court of Justice (ECJ), Anthony Arnul aptly pointed out: ‘It is true that academics may be constrained in the work they can do by outside factors, […] but those considerations are not generally seen as imposing on them any sort of ethical obligation to engage in a particular type of work’. See Arnull (2013), p. 215.

Selivanova (2007).

Selivanova (2010), p. 53.

See, e.g., Marceau (2010), p. 83; Selivanova (2010), p. 53; Lamy (2013b).

Selivanova (2014), p. 275; Desta (2003), p. 523.

The inherent market access bias of the system and the fact that these countries export one product for which market access is not an issue said to have contributed to their reluctance to join the multilateral trading system. See Desta (2003), p. 531 et seq; UNCTAD (2000).

See Lamy (2013b), p. 111; Cottier et al. (2009), p. 1.

See UNCTAD (2000), p. 15.

See Grigorova (2015), (persuasively dispelling the myth of the gentlemen’s agreement based on general international law); Marhold (2013), p. 1 (noting that ‘the existence, scope and content of the alleged gentlemen’s agreement excluding energy is highly debatable. No written form of proof whatsoever of a gentlemen’s agreement excluding energy trade from the GATT/WTO forum exists in GATT negotiating history.’), at fn. 2.

Grigorova (2015); Meyer (2016), pp. 144–149 (documenting the instances in which energy issues were raised).

See Selivanova (2010), p. 53 (arguing that it is now commonly accepted that WTO agreements apply equally to energy as to any other product).

See Schrank (2001), p. 11 et seq; Larsen and Shah (1992) (and the citation therein).

Bianchi (2016), p. 6.

Dunoff (2012), p. 137.

See Wu and Salzman (2014), p. 411 (concluding that ‘The decisions in these so-called Classic cases were hugely influential, seizing the attention of both the environmental and academic communities, and quite literally creating the field of trade and environment law.’). Perhaps the only major exception in this regard is the discussion over border carbon adjustments.

WEF Ad Hoc Working Group on Trade & Climate Change (2010), p. 13.

See, e.g., US-Tuna I (n 12); US-Tuna II (n 12); US-Gasoline (n 21); US-Shrimp (n 23).

See Lamy (2013b), p. 55 et seq.

This is mainly because of their inclusion in the Doha Round of multilateral trade negotiations.

100

See, in general, Esty (1994).

101

Esty (1993), p. 32 (noting that ‘Much of the discussion to date has focused on possible legal refinements to the GATT to build environmental sensitivity into the international trading system.’).

102

See Williams and Millington (2004), p. 99.

103

Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future. Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427—Development and International Co-operation: Environment (4 August 1987) 42nd Session (Brundtland Report).

104

On the definition of sustainable development, see Sum and Hills (1998), p. 129; Williams and Millington (2004).

105

Pavoni (2010), p. 649.

106

Lydgate (2012), p. 621.

Lydgate (2012).

See Bigdeli (2008).

Singh (2010).

Lamy (2013a).

The FFSR has already raised the issue of fossil fuel subsidies in the WTO Committee on Trade and Environment (CTE). See WTO (2015, 2016).

112

See Bigdeli (2008).

Arnull A (2013) Judicial activism and the European Court of Justice: how should academics respond? In: de Witte B, Muir E, Dawson M (eds) Judicial activism at the European Court of Justice. Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham

Asmelash HB (2015) Energy subsidies and WTO dispute settlement: why only renewable energy subsidies are challenged. J Int Econ Law 18:261–265CrossRef

Asmelash HB (2016) The G7’s pledge to end fossil fuel subsidies by 2025: mere rhetoric or a sign of post-Paris momentum? Eur Soc Int Law 5:7. Reflections 1

Asmelash HB (2017) Falling oil prices and sustainable energy transition: towards a multilateral agreement on fossil-fuel subsidies. In: Arent D et al (eds) The political economy of clean energy transitions. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 349–367

Ayala FA, Gallagher KP (2009) Subsidizing sustainable development under the WTO. J World Invest Trade 10:131CrossRef

Bacchus J (2012) The case for clean subsidies. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2012/11/the-case-for-clean-subsidies

Bhagwati J, Mavroidis PC (2007) Is action against US exports for failure to sign Kyoto Protocol WTO-legal? World Trade Rev 6:299–310CrossRef

Bianchi A (2016) International law theories: an inquiry into different ways of thinking. Oxford University Press, OxfordCrossRef

Bigdeli SZ (2008) Will the “friends of climate” emerge in the WTO? The prospects of applying the “fisheries subsidies” model to energy subsidies. Carbon Clim Law Rev 2:78–88

Bigdeli SZ (2009) Incentives schemes to promote renewables and the WTO law of subsidies. In: Cottier T, Nartova O, Bigdeli S (eds) International trade regulation and the mitigation of climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 155–192CrossRef

Bigdeli SZ (2011) Resurrecting the dead? The expired non-actionable subsidies and the lingering question of green space. Manchester J Int Econ Law 8:2–37

Bigdeli SZ (2016) Feed-in-tariffs and the WTO regulation of subsidies—a moment of progressive adjudication in Canada–renewable energy. In: Delimatsis P (ed) Research handbook on climate change and trade law. Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, pp 119–147CrossRef

Burniaux J-M, Chateau J (2014) Greenhouse gases mitigation potential and economic efficiency of phasing-out fossil fuel subsidies. Int Econ 140:71–88CrossRef

Cartland M, Depayre G, Woznowski J (2012) Is something going wrong in the WTO dispute settlement? J World Trade 46:979–1015

Casier L, Moerenhout T (2013) WTO members not the appellate body needs to clarify boundaries in renewable energy support. International Institute for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg

Charnovitz S (2007a) A new WTO paradigm for trade and the environment. Singapore Yearb Int Law 11:15

Charnovitz S (2007b) The WTO’s environmental progress. J Int Econ Law 10:685–706CrossRef

Charnovitz S (2014) Green subsidies and the WTO (World Bank)

Chen C-J (2010) Fisheries subsidies under international law. Springer, BerlinCrossRef

Clements B, Coady D, Fabrizio S, Gupta S, Alleyne T, Sdralevich C (eds) (2013) Energy subsidy reform: lessons and implications. International Monetary Fund, Washington

Coady D et al (2015) How large are global energy subsidies? IMF Working Paper WP/15/105 (International Monetary Fund)

Coady D, Parry I, Sears L, Shang B (2017) How large are global fossil fuel subsidies? World Dev 91:11–27CrossRef

Cosbey A, Mavroidis P (2014) A turquoise mess: green subsidies, blue industrial policy and renewable energy: the case for redrafting the subsidies agreement of the WTO. J Int Econ Law 17:1–37CrossRef

Cottier T (2014) Renewable energy and WTO law: more policy space or enhanced disciplines. Renew Energy Law Policy Rev 5:40–51

Cottier T et al (2009) Energy in WTO law and policy (NCCR Trade Regulation) Working Paper No. 2009/25

Depledge J (2000) Tracing the origins of the Kyoto Protocol: an article by article textual history. (United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change) Technical Paper FCCC/TP/2000/2

Desta MG (2003) The organization of petroleum exporting countries, the World Trade Organization, and regional trade agreements. J World Trade 37:523–551

Dunoff JL (2012) A new approach to regime interaction. In: Young MA (ed) Regime interaction in international law: facing fragmentation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Esty DC (1993) GATTing the greens: not just greening the GATT. Foreign Aff 72:523–551CrossRef

Esty DC (1994) Greening the GATT: trade, environment, and the future. Institute for International Economics, Washington

Farah PD, Cima E (2014) World Trade Organization, renewable energy subsidies, and the case of feed-in tariffs: time for reform toward sustainable development. Georgetown Int Environ Law Rev 27:516–537

Feld DS, Switzer S (2012) Whither Article XX? Regulatory autonomy under non-GATT agreements after China—raw materials. Yale J Int Law Online 38:16–30

GATT (1991) DS21/R - 39S/155. Panel report, United States – restrictions on imports of Tuna (US-Tuna I). Circulated 3 September 1991 (not adopted)

GATT (1994) DS29/R. Panel report, United States – restrictions on imports of Tuna (US-Tuna II). Circulated 16 June 1994 (not adopted)

Giupponi BO (2015) Mapping emerging countries’ role in renewable energy trade disputes. Transnational Dispute Management 12

Green A (2006) Trade rules and climate change subsidies. World Trade Rev 5:377–414CrossRef

Greenwald J (2003) WTO dispute settlement: an exercise in trade law legislation? J Int Econ Law 6:113–124CrossRef

Grigorova J (2015) WTO law and energy resources: the absurdity of a systemic exclusion of the energy sector by a Gentlemen’s agreement. Centre for International and Transnational Law

Havel BF, Sanchez GS (2014) The principles and practice of international aviation law. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Howse R (2006) World trade law and renewable energy: the case of non-tariff measures. J Eur Environ Plann Law 3:500–518CrossRef

Howse R (2008) http://worldtradelaw.typepad.com/ielpblog/2008/12/careful-what-you-propose.html

Howse R (2013) Securing policy space for clean energy under the SCM: alternative approaches. In: ICTSD (ed) Clean energy and the trade system group proposals and analysis. International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development

Howse R (2016) The World Trade Organization 20 years on: global governance by judiciary. Eur J Int Law 27:9–77CrossRef

Howse R, Eliason A (2009) Countervailing duties and subsidies for climate mitigation. In: Stewart RB, Kingsbury B, Rudyk B (eds) Climate finance: regulatory and funding strategies for climate change and global development. New York University Press, New York

IEA (2012) World Energy Outlook. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development & International Energy Agency

IEA (2015) World Energy Outlook 2015. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development & International Energy Agency

IEA, (International Energy Agency) (2016) World energy outlook. IEA, Paris

Jegou I, Rubini L (2011) The allocation of emission allowances free of charge: legal and economic considerations. International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development. Issue Paper 13

Joseph J (1994) The Tuna-Dolphin controversy in the Eastern Pacific Ocean: biological, economic, and political impacts. Ocean Dev Int Law 25:1–30CrossRef

Kingsbury B (1994) The Tuna-Dolphin controversy, the World Trade Organization, and the liberal project to reconceptualize international law. Yearb Int Environ Law 5:1–40

Kulovesi K (2011) The WTO dispute settlement system: challenges of the environment, legitimacy and fragmentation. Kluwer Law International, Alphen aan den Rijn

Kulovesi K (2014) Real or imagined controversies? A climate law perspective on the growing links between the international trade and climate change regimes. Trade Law Dev 6:56–92

Lamy P (2013a) Energy policies and the WTO. Workshop on intergovernmental agreements in energy policy, Geneva. https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/sppl_e/sppl279_e.htm

Lamy P (2013b) The Geneva consensus: making trade work for all. Cambridge University Press, CambridgeCrossRef

Larsen B, Shah A (1992) World fossil fuel subsidies and global carbon emissions. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper WPS 1002

Leal-Arcas R, Filis A (2015) Renewable energy disputes in the World Trade Organization. Oil Gas Energy Law J 15

Lewis J (2014) The rise of renewable energy protectionism: emerging trade conflicts and implications for low carbon development. Global Environ Polit 14:10–29CrossRef

Lydgate E (2012) Sustainable development in the WTO: from mutual supportiveness to balancing. World Trade Rev 11:621–639CrossRef

Marceau G (2010) The WTO in the emerging energy governance debate. Global Trade Customs J 5:83–93

Marhold A (2013) The World Trade Organization and energy: fuel for debate. ESIL Reflections 2

McGlade C, Ekins P (2015) The geographical distribution of fossil fuels unused when limiting global warming to 2 °C. Nature 517:187–190CrossRef

Meyer T (2016) The World Trade Organization’s role in global energy governance. In: Van de Graaf T et al (eds) The Palgrave handbook of the international political economy of energy. Palgrave Macmillan UK, Hampshire, pp 139–171CrossRef

Milthorp P, David C (2012) Energy issues in selected WTO accessions. In: Selivanova J (ed) Regulation of energy in international trade law: WTO, NAFTA, and Energy Charter. Kluwer Law International, Alphen aan den Rijn, pp 259–302

Pauwelyn J (2004) Recent books on trade and environment: GATT phantoms still haunt the WTO. Eur J Int Law 15:575–592CrossRef

Pauwelyn J (2013) Carbon leakage measures and border tax adjustments under WTO law. In: van Calster G, Prévost D (eds) Research handbook on environment, health and the WTO. Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, pp 448–506CrossRef

Pavoni R (2010) Mutual supportiveness as a principle of interpretation and law-making: a watershed for the “WTO-and-competing-regimes” debate? Eur J Int Law 21:649–679CrossRef

Rubini L (2012) Ain’t Wastin’ time no more: subsidies for renewable energy. The SCM agreement, policy space, and law reform. J Int Econ Law 15:525–579CrossRef

Rubini L (2014) The good, the bad, and the ugly. Lessons on methodology in legal analysis from the recent WTO litigation on renewable energy subsidies. J World Trade 48:153–194

Rubini L (2015) The wide and the narrow gate: benchmarking in the SCM agreement after the Canada–renewable energy/FIT ruling. World Trade Rev 14:211–237CrossRef

Rubini L (2017) ASCM disciplines and recent WTO case law developments: what space for “green” subsidies? In: Cottier T, Espa I (eds) International trade in sustainable electricity: regulatory challenges in international economic law. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1–50

Schlag P (2014) A comment on Thomas Schultz’s editorial. J Int Dispute Settlement 5:235–237CrossRef

Schrank WE (2001) Subsidies for fisheries: a review of concepts. In: FAO (ed) Expert consultation on identifying, assessing and reporting on subsidies in the fishing industry. Food and Agriculture Organization

Schwanitz VJ, Franziska P, Christoph B, Gunnar L (2014) Long-term climate policy implications of phasing out fossil fuel subsidies. Energy Policy 67:882–894CrossRef

Selivanova Y (2007) The WTO and energy: WTO rules and agreements of relevance to the energy sector. International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development

Selivanova Y (2010) Managing the patchwork of agreements in trade and investment. In: Goldthau A, Witte JM (eds) Global energy governance: the new rules of the game. Brookings Institution Press, Washington, pp 49–72

Selivanova Y (2014) The WTO agreements and energy. In: Talus K (ed) Research handbook on international energy law. Edward Elgar Publishing, Northampton, pp 257–307

Shadikhodjaev S (2015) Renewable energy and government support: time to “green” the SCM agreement? World Trade Rev 14:479–506CrossRef

Shaffer G (2016) Will the US undermine the World Trade Organization? The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/gregory-shaffer/will-the-us-undermine-the_b_10108970.html

Simmons ZS (2014) Subsidizing solar: the case for an environmental goods and services carve-out from the global subsidies regime. UCLA J Environ Law Policy 32:422–484

Singh HV (2010) WTO Deputy Director General. Opening remarks. In: A joint conference on increasing the momentum of fossil-fuel subsidy reform: developments and opportunities, Geneva, October 2010. https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news10_e/ddg_14oct10_e.htm

Stiglitz JE (2006) Making globalization work. WW Norton & Co., New York

Sugathan M (2013) Winds of change and rays of hope: how can the multilateral trading system facilitate trade in clean energy technologies and services? In: ICTSD (ed) Clean energy and the trade system group proposals and analysis. International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development 2013

Sum MC, Hills P (1998) Interpreting sustainable development. J Environ Sci 10:129–143

Sykes AO (2003) The economics of WTO rules on subsidies and countervailing measures. Olin Law and Economics Working Paper No. 186. University of Chicago Law School, Chicago

Sykes AO (2007) Trade remedy Laws. In: Guzman AT, Sykes AO, Elgar E (eds) Research handbook in international economic law. Edward Elgar, Northampton, pp 62–102

Sykes AO (2010) The questionable case for subsidies regulation: a comparative perspective. J Legal Anal 2:473–523CrossRef

Thaggert HL (1994) A closer look at the Tuna-Dolphin case: “like products” and “extrajurisdictionality” in the trade and environment context. In: Cameron J, Geradin D, Demaret P (eds) Trade & the environment: the search for balance. Cameron May Ltd., London, pp 69–95

UNCTAD (2000) UNCTAD/ITCD/TSB/9. Trade agreements, petroleum, and energy policies

UNCTAD (2014) Trade remedies: targeting the renewable energy sector. United Nations Publication

Weber RH, Koch R (2015) International trade law challenges by subsidies for renewable energy. J World Trade 49:757–780

WEF (2010) From collision to vision: climate change and world trade. A discussion paper of the Ad Hoc Working Group on trade and climate change. World Economic Forum

Williams CC, Millington AC (2004) The diverse and contested meanings of sustainable development. Geogr J 170:99–104CrossRef

WTO (1996) WT/DS2/AB/R. Appellate body report, United States - Standards for reformulated and conventional gasoline (US-Gasoline)

WTO (1998) WT/DSS8/AB/R. Appellate body report, United States-Import prohibition of certain shrimp and shrimp products (US-Shrimp)

WTO (2001) WT/DS58/RW. Panel report, United States - Import prohibition of certain shrimp and shrimp products, recourse to Article 215 of the DSU by Malaysia (US-Shrimp)

WTO (2013) WT/DS412/AB/R & WT/DS426/AB/R. Appellate body reports, Canada. Certain measures affecting the renewable energy generation sector (Canada-Renewable Energy)/Canada - measures relating to the Feed-in tariff program

WTO (2015) Energy efficiency and illegal logging at centre of discussions in environment committee. https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news15_e/envir_22jun15_e.htm

WTO (2016) WTO members discuss climate change, chemicals and waste management. https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news16_e/envir_14nov16_e.htm

WTO (2017) Disputes by agreement (as Cited in Request for Consultations). https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/dispu_agreements_index_e.htm?id=A20

Wu M, Salzman J (2014) The next generation of trade and environmental conflicts: the rise of green industrial policy. Northwest Univ Law Rev 108:401–474

Titel: The Trade and Environment Debate on the Regulation of Energy Subsidies in the WTO: What Kept Fossil Fuel Subsidies Off the Radar Screen?
verfasst von: Henok Birhanu Asmelash
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: Energy Law and Economics
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-74635-7

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-74636-4

Copyright-Jahr: 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74636-4_14

Springer Professional

Abstract

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu Ihrer Lizenz zu erhalten.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Springer Professional "Technik"

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"