1 Introduction
2 Literature review
2.1 Telecommuting and online shopping as digital alternatives for travel
2.2 The roles of telecommuting, online shopping and other digital alternatives, during COVID-19 outbreak period
3 Data collection
4 Results
Total | Sweden | Italy | India | Other | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Residence | – | 100% | 28.9% | 53.6% | 8.8% | 8.7% |
Gender | Female | 51.6% | 42.9% | 60.6% | 29.0% | 47.8% |
Male | 48.1% | 57.1% | 39.4% | 71.0% | 49.3% | |
Other | 0.3% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 3.0% | |
Level of education | Less than high school | 2.4% | 0.4% | 4.3% | 0.0% | 0.0% |
High school graduate, diploma or equivalent | 20.4% | 12.4% | 27.9% | 11.6% | 9.0% | |
Trade/technical/vocal training | 3.2% | 3.1% | 4.3% | 0.0% | 0.0% | |
Bachelor’s degree | 24.3% | 20.8% | 21.0% | 53.6% | 26.9% | |
Master’s degree | 38.9% | 40.7% | 38.2% | 24.6% | 52.2% | |
Professional degree | 2.9% | 4.4% | 1.2% | 7.2% | 4.5% | |
Doctorate degree | 7.8% | 18.1% | 3.1% | 2.9% | 7.5% | |
Employment | Employee | 54.4% | 61.5% | 51.8% | 53.6% | 47.8% |
Self-employed | 10.8% | 7.1% | 10.5% | 24.6% | 10.4% | |
Housewife/houseman | 1.3% | 0.0% | 1.0% | 4.3% | 4.5% | |
Student | 20.6% | 21.2% | 20.3% | 11.6% | 29.9% | |
Part time worker | 1.9% | 2.2% | 2.1% | 0.0% | 1.5% | |
Volunteering | 0.4% | 0.0% | 0.7% | 0.0% | 0.0% | |
Military | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | |
Retired | 7.7% | 6.6% | 9.8% | 4.3% | 1.5% | |
Unemployed | 2.9% | 1.3% | 3.8% | 1.4% | 4.5% |
4.1 Changes in habits
5 Multivariate analysis results
Variable ranges | Changes in commute trips | Changes in grocery trips | Changes in non-grocery trips | Changes in family and friends visit trips | Changes in eating out trips | Changes in hobby related trips | Changes in sport related trips | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable ranges | [−40, + 40] | [−40, + 40] | [−40, + 40] | [−40, + 40] | [−40, + 40] | [−40, + 40] | [−40, + 40] | ||||||||
B | t | B | t | B | t | B | t | B | t | B | t | B | t | ||
(Constant) | −7.682 | −2.24* | −3.208 | −2.01* | − 2.909 | − 2.54* | −6.979 | − 3.14* | −4.944 | − 2.78* | −9.186 | −3.44* | −6.394 | − 2.05* | |
Being a female | 0, 1 | 0.014 | 0.02 | −1.239 | − 2.90* | − 0.151 | − 0.51 | − 0.571 | − 1.02 | − 0.464 | − 1.06 | − 0.175 | − 0.25 | 1.326 | 1.61 |
Being a full-time worker | 0, 1 | −7.568 | −5.27* | 0.458 | 0.67 | −0.328 | − 0.68 | − 0.087 | − 0.10 | − 2.982 | −4.22* | − 0.946 | − 0.85 | 0.834 | 0.63 |
Being a student | 0, 1 | − 10.216 | −6.23* | 0.203 | 0.26 | 0.182 | 0.33 | 0.264 | 0.25 | −2.506 | −3.04* | −1.981 | − 1.56 | 2.832 | 1.87** |
Have university education | 0, 1 | −1.259 | −1.21 | −0.563 | − 1.13 | 0.476 | 1.35 | −0.347 | − 0.52 | − 0.252 | −0.48 | 0.200 | 0.25 | 0.337 | 0.35 |
Having children within household | 0, 1 | 0.193 | 0.21 | 0.241 | 0.53 | 0.037 | 0.12 | 1.053 | 1.74** | 1.167 | 2.50* | 1.582 | 2.16* | −0.112 | −0.13 |
Having adults within household | 0, 1 | −0.053 | −0.06 | 0.358 | 0.78 | 0.159 | 0.50 | 0.228 | 0.38 | −0.050 | − 0.11 | 0.715 | 0.96 | 2.224 | 2.50* |
Having elderly within household | 0, 1 | 1.697 | 1.43 | −1.755 | −3.08* | −0.690 | − 1.72** | − 0.477 | − 0.63 | 0.270 | 0.46 | − 1.085 | − 1.18 | − 0.399 | − 0.36 |
Do not travel for the given activity during pandemic | 0, 1 | −4.984 | − 3.44* | − 1.905 | −2.48* | − 0.477 | − 1.00 | 1.644 | 1.82** | − 0.085 | − 0.11 | −1.820 | − 1.81** | − 2.057 | − 2.08* |
Living in Sweden | 0, 1 | 1.146 | 0.67 | 1.031 | 1.26 | 1.353 | 2.29* | 2.176 | 1.96* | 1.628 | 1.87** | 3.543 | 2.62* | 2.469 | 1.54 |
Living in Italy | 0, 1 | 2.472 | 1.52 | 1.091 | 1.36 | 1.896 | 3.41* | −2.025 | −1.91** | 1.106 | 1.32 | −0.569 | − 0.44 | 1.747 | 1.14 |
Living in India | 0, 1 | 0.136 | 0.06 | 1.766 | 1.68** | 0.778 | 1.08 | 1.587 | 1.16 | 2.161 | 2.01* | 4.102 | 2.46* | −3.594 | −1.80** |
Used private car to carry out the given activity before pandemic | 0, 1 | −1.479 | −1.04 | 1.569 | 2.43* | 0.306 | 0.66 | −0.515 | − 0.58 | 1.002 | 1.53 | 0.497 | 0.56 | 0.152 | 0.14 |
Used public transport to carry out the given activity before pandemic | 0, 1 | −3.033 | −2.32* | −0.886 | − 0.79 | − 0.749 | − 1.53 | − 0.806 | − 0.79 | 0.865 | 1.23 | 0.846 | 0.80 | −3.885 | −2.18* |
Used private car to carry out the given activity during pandemic | 0, 1 | 2.278 | 1.36 | − 0.829 | −1.32 | 0.085 | 0.16 | 2.424 | 2.44* | 1.761 | 2.06* | 0.814 | 0.70 | −3.338 | −2.41* |
Used public transport to carry out the given activity during pandemic | 0, 1 | −1.431 | −0.57 | 2.663 | 1.25 | 1.418 | 1.54 | 2.105 | 1.17 | 0.984 | 0.68 | −1.745 | −0.82 | −3.818 | − 0.86 |
R | .415a | .225a | .201a | .287a | .273a | .299a | .243a | ||||||||
R square | 0.172 | 0.051 | 0.040 | 0.082 | 0.075 | 0.090 | 0.059 | ||||||||
Adjusted R square | 0.156 | 0.032 | 0.022 | 0.064 | 0.057 | 0.072 | 0.040 | ||||||||
Std. Error of the estimate | 11.865 | 5.725 | 4.021 | 7.613 | 5.926 | 9.277 | 11.140 | ||||||||
Number of samples | 781 | 781 | 781 | 781 | 781 | 781 | 781 |
Variable ranges | Change in use of internet for work meetings | Change in use of internet for entertainment | Change in use of internet for personal calls | Change in use of internet for work | Change in online shopping (groceries) | Change in online shopping (non-groceries) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable ranges | [−32.5, + 32.5] | [− 32.5, + 32.5] | [− 32.5, + 32.5] | [− 32.5, + 32.5] | [− 100%, + 100%] | [− 100%, + 100%] | |||||||
B | t | B | t | B | t | B | t | B | t | B | t | ||
(Constant) | −0.688 | −0.27 | 4.257 | 2.12* | 4.152 | 2.15* | 3.100 | 1.09 | 0.085 | 1.19 | 0.133 | 1.59 | |
Being a female | 0, 1 | −1.608 | −2.49* | 0.762 | 1.55 | −0.375 | − 0.79 | − 0.458 | − 0.65 | 0.009 | 0.50 | 0.022 | 1.04 |
Being a full-time worker | 0, 1 | 3.332 | 3.10* | 1.123 | 1.42 | 1.265 | 1.65** | 3.678 | 3.13* | −0.060 | −2.10* | 0.091 | 2.73* |
Being a student | 0, 1 | 4.625 | 3.84* | 2.692 | 3.06* | 3.425 | 4.02* | 3.292 | 2.50* | −0.061 | −1.92** | 0.009 | 0.24 |
Have university education | 0, 1 | 2.456 | 3.27* | 1.036 | 1.82** | 1.958 | 3.55* | 0.256 | 0.31 | 0.039 | 1.89** | 0.033 | 1.39 |
Having children within household | 0, 1 | 0.600 | 0.88 | −0.775 | −1.49 | 0.345 | 0.69 | 0.323 | 0.43 | −0.004 | −0.19 | 0.010 | 0.46 |
Having adults within household | 0, 1 | −0.021 | −0.03 | 0.091 | 0.17 | −0.301 | − 0.59 | − 0.308 | − 0.40 | − 0.006 | − 0.30 | − 0.016 | −0.71 |
Having elderly within household | 0, 1 | −1.012 | − 1.16 | − 0.852 | − 1.29 | − 0.804 | − 1.26 | −1.243 | − 1.31 | − 0.012 | − 0.50 | − 0.016 | − 0.58 |
Living in Sweden | 0, 1 | 1.797 | 1.45 | −0.198 | − 0.21 | −1.225 | − 1.33 | − 0.243 | −0.18 | 0.048 | 1.42 | −0.043 | − 1.07 |
Living in Italy | 0, 1 | 1.664 | 1.40 | 0.381 | 0.42 | −1.318 | − 1.51 | 0.221 | 0.17 | 0.054 | 1.66** | −0.045 | −1.19 |
Living in India | 0, 1 | −1.708 | −1.10 | 1.592 | 1.31 | −2.339 | −2.00* | −3.434 | −2.02* | 0.071 | 1.67** | −0.386 | −7.65* |
Change in trips for the given activity | [−40, + 40] | −0.129 | −5.03* | − 0.028 | −2.35* | − 0.086 | − 2.83* | −0.069 | −2.45* | − 0.002 | −1.35 | −0.004 | − 1.76** |
Changes in eating out trips | [−40, + 40] | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | − 0.001 | −0.85 | – | – |
Safety perceived in the workplace | 0, 1 | −0.170 | −0.23 | – | – | – | – | − 0.552 | −0.69 | – | – | – | – |
Safety perceived outside | 0, 1 | – | – | − 1.996 | − 3.06* | − 1.302 | − 2.07* | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Safety perceived in stores | 0, 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | − 0.069 | − 3.00* | − 0.076 | − 2.81* |
Safety perceived in receiving home-deliveries | 0, 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | − 0.023 | − 1.11 | 0.017 | 0.68 |
Safety perceived using public transport | 0, 1 | −2.039 | −1.77** | − 0.456 | −0.54 | − 1.369 | − 1.67** | −1.653 | − 1.31 | −0.020 | − 0.59 | 0.006 | 0.15 |
Safety perceived using private car | 0, 1 | −0.477 | −0.45 | − 0.114 | −0.14 | − 0.496 | −0.61 | −1.401 | − 1.20 | 0.032 | 1.07 | −0.005 | − 0.14 |
R | .336a | .244a | .263a | .220a | .198a | .388a | |||||||
R square | 0.113 | 0.059 | 0.069 | 0.048 | 0.039 | 0.150 | |||||||
Adjusted R square | 0.097 | 0.042 | 0.052 | 0.031 | 0.019 | 0.134 | |||||||
Std. Error of the estimate | 8.712 | 6.62491 | 6.41037 | 9.52366 | 0.23686 | 0.27914 | |||||||
Number of samples | 781 | 781 | 781 | 781 | 781 | 781 |
Variable ranges | Likelihood to keep the new work meetings habits | Likelihood to keep the new commuting habits | Likelihood to keep the new work habits | Likelihood to keep the new shopping habits (groceries) | Likelihood to keep the new shopping habits (non-groceries) | Likelihood to keep the new free-time habits | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables ranges | [1, 5] | [1, 5] | [1, 5] | [1, 5] | [1, 5] | [1, 5] | |||||||
B | t | B | t | B | t | B | t | B | t | B | t | ||
(Constant) | −2.457 | −2.79* | −1.999 | −2.41* | −4.575 | −4.46* | −2.319 | −2.79* | −5.101 | −5.77* | −2.985 | −3.01* | |
Being a female | 0, 1 | −0.326 | −1.53 | −0.433 | − 2.13* | −0.343 | −1.48 | 0.467 | 2.26* | 0.085 | 0.42 | 0.342 | 1.44 |
Being a full-time worker | 0, 1 | 0.291 | 0.73 | −0.215 | − 0.61 | 1.159 | 2.52* | 0.186 | 0.53 | 0.406 | 1.15 | −0.520 | −1.32 |
Being a student | 0, 1 | −0.160 | −0.37 | − 0.284 | −0.72 | 0.782 | 1.55 | −0.142 | −0.36 | 0.203 | 0.52 | −0.290 | −0.68 |
Have university education | 0, 1 | 0.004 | 0.02 | 0.376 | 1.54 | −0.253 | −0.94 | − 0.405 | −1.72** | 0.231 | 0.99 | −0.531 | −1.98* |
Having children within household | 0, 1 | 0.618 | 2.81* | −0.330 | −1.57 | −0.076 | − 0.31 | −0.084 | − 0.39 | 0.288 | 1.40 | 0.413 | 1.64** |
Having adults within household | 0, 1 | −0.433 | −1.86** | 0.279 | 1.29 | −0.001 | 0.00 | −0.065 | −0.30 | 0.275 | 1.26 | −0.131 | −0.52 |
Having elderly within household | 0, 1 | 0.216 | 0.73 | −0.213 | −0.76 | − 0.002 | −0.01 | − 0.052 | −0.19 | 0.250 | 0.92 | 0.402 | 1.30 |
Living in sweden | 0, 1 | −0.121 | −0.30 | 0.450 | 1.15 | −0.030 | −0.06 | − 0.868 | −2.18* | 1.201 | 2.85* | −1.408 | −3.15* |
Living in italy | 0, 1 | −0.520 | −1.32 | 0.065 | 0.18 | 0.604 | 1.34 | −0.457 | −1.23 | 1.069 | 2.65* | −1.092 | −2.62* |
Living in india | 0, 1 | −0.011 | −0.02 | 0.554 | 1.19 | 0.491 | 0.82 | 0.163 | 0.33 | 0.733 | 1.39 | −0.189 | − 0.34 |
Changes in trips for the given activity | [−40, + 40] | − 0.001 | − 0.14 | 0.001 | 0.11 | 0.021 | 2.16* | −0.003 | −0.15 | 0.021 | 0.89 | 0.009 | 1.56 |
Change in use of internet for work | [−32.5, 32.5] | 0.012 | 1.00 | 0.003 | 0.29 | −0.003 | −0.20 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Change in use of internet for work meetings | [−32.5, 32.5] | 0.031 | 2.20* | −0.008 | −0.66 | 0.024 | 1.61 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Change in online shopping (groceries and non-groceries, respectively) | [−32.5, 32.5] | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1.181 | 2.89* | 0.998 | 2.93* | – | – |
Change in use of internet for entertainment | [−32.5, 32.5] | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.030 | 1.57 |
Change in use of internet for personal calls | [−32.5, 32.5] | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | −0.032 | −1.52 |
Likelihood to keep the new work meetings habits | [1, 5] | – | – | 0.854 | 3.49* | 2.879 | 12.15* | −0.486 | −1.84** | 0.731 | 3.01* | 0.588 | 2.06* |
Likelihood to keep the new commuting habits | [1, 5] | 0.905 | 3.66* | – | – | 0.791 | 3.15* | 1.190 | 5.25* | 0.654 | 2.98* | 0.557 | 2.09* |
Likelihood to keep the new work habits | [1, 5] | 2.914 | 12.07* | 0.715 | 2.89* | – | – | 0.448 | 1.67** | 0.264 | 1.06 | 0.903 | 3.10* |
Likelihood to keep the new shopping habits (grocery) | [1, 5] | −0.462 | −1.75** | 1.191 | 5.27* | 0.475 | 1.73** | – | – | 2.051 | 9.92* | 0.369 | 1.37 |
Likelihood to keep the new shopping habits (non- grocery) | [1, 5] | 0.699 | 2.88* | 0.633 | 2.86* | 0.383 | 1.50 | 2.032 | 9.80* | – | – | 0.697 | 2.65* |
Likelihood to keep the new free-time habits | [1, 5] | 0.523 | 1.84** | 0.552 | 2.15* | 0.938 | 3.23* | 0.426 | 1.63 | 0.709 | 2.77* | – | – |
Likelihood to keep the new sport habits | [1, 5] | 0.070 | 0.26 | 0.105 | 0.43 | 0.202 | 0.71 | 0.596 | 2.42* | 0.215 | 0.88 | 2.800 | 11.88* |
Safety perceived in the workplace | 0, 1 | 0.293 | 1.24 | −0.225 | −1.01 | −0.427 | −1.69** | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Safety perceived in stores | 0, 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | −0.020 | −0.08 | 0.053 | 0.22 | – | – |
Safety perceived being outside | 0, 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.658 | 2.04* |
Safety perceived eating out | 0, 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.184 | 0.42 |
Safety perceived using public transport | 0, 1 | 0.036 | 0.09 | 0.091 | 0.25 | 0.278 | 0.69 | −0.354 | −0.89 | −0.053 | −0.15 | − 0.517 | −1.08 |
Safety perceived using private car | 0, 1 | 0.230 | 0.65 | −0.510 | −1.55 | 0.898 | 2.09* | 0.768 | 2.17* | −0.020 | −0.06 | 0.062 | 0.15 |
−2 log likelihood | 632.162a | 693.947a | 549.998a | 675.508a | 710.066a | 532.951a | |||||||
Cox & snell r square | 0.414 | 0.260 | 0.429 | 0.337 | 0.330 | 0.403 | |||||||
Nagelkerke r square | 0.560 | 0.373 | 0.598 | 0.468 | 0.452 | 0.577 | |||||||
Number of samples | 781 | 781 | 781 | 781 | 781 | 781 |