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2019 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

Training and Education of Armed Forces in the Age of High-Tech Hostilities

verfasst von : Marco Longobardo

Erschienen in: Use and Misuse of New Technologies

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

In recent decades, new technologies have so radically changed current warfare that, as a consequence, the very law of armed conflict had to be applied to new means and methods of warfare, such as unmanned aerial vehicles and cyber attacks, as well as autonomous weapon systems. This Chapter explores the impact of this high-tech trend on the education and training of the personnel of armed forces from two different perspectives. First, it explores what military training duties States have with respect to high-tech means and methods of warfare and, in particular, whether the law of armed conflict requires that States employing them provide specific military training to their armed forces. It is argued that States may be held responsible for the inadequate training of their soldiers in situations where this results in a violation of the principle of precaution. Second, the analysis aims at establishing whether a duty to provide international humanitarian law education and training exists with specific regard to high-tech means and methods of warfare, in light of State practice regarding the dissemination of international humanitarian law. Arguably, although a significant trend regarding the supply of specific instructions and education pertaining to high-tech means and methods of warfare does exist, the lack of a specific international humanitarian law education and training focusing on high-tech means and methods of warfare may not be considered a violation of international humanitarian law in every case.

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Vorheriges Kapitel What Do Human Rights Really Say About the Use of Autonomous Weapons Systems for Law Enforcement Purposes?

Nächstes Kapitel Drones at War: The Military Use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and International Law

The expression “high-tech” hostilities is employed in this work a-technically, as referred to all the means and methods of warfare that became available or commonplace in the last two decades, or which are under development at the time of the writing of this chapter, thanks to the developments of technology (such as cyber operations, unmanned aerial vehicles, and autonomous weapons).

In this work, the expressions “international humanitarian law”, “jus in bello”, and “law of armed conflict” are employed interchangeably as synonyms. On this terminology, see Kolb (2013), para. 1.

“Training”, Cambridge Dictionary online, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/training.

“Education”, Cambridge Dictionary online, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/education.

See Sandoz et al. (1987), para. 2206. On the principle of military necessity see, among others, Venturini (1988), Salvadego (2016). On the principle of humanity, see Cassese (1979) and Meron (2000).

Garraway (2002), p. 955.

See, among many others, Harrison Dinniss (2012), Roscini (2014), Woltag (2014) and Schmitt (2017).

US Department of Defence, Law of War Manual (June 2015, update December 2016), Sect. 16.1.2.

US Department of Defence, Directive 3000.09 (21 November 2012), www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/300009p.pdf.

See, among others, O’Connell (2012), Wagner (2014), Barela (2015) and Lucas (2016).

UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, docs.unocha.org/sites/dms/Documents/Unmanned%20Aerial%20Vehicles%20in%20Humanitarian%20Response%20OCHA%20July%202014.pdf.

See, generally, Sassòli (2014), Bhuta et al. (2016) and Harris (2016).

On the different proposals regarding new treaty law to govern high-tech hostilities, see, generally, Liivoja (2015), pp. 1160–1161.

See, generally, Doswald-Beck (2002), p. 163; Saxon (2013), p. 2; Nasu and McLaughlin (2014), pp. 5–6; Roscini (2014), p. 281; Heintschel von Heinegg et al. (2018), pp. 6–7.

Today, this rule is codified by Article 51(2) AP I, and it is a parcel of the principle of distinction.

Liivoja (2015), p. 1168.

See infra Sect. 4.

See, e.g., Canons of the Second Lateran Council of 1139 (during the Pontificate of Innocent III), which decreed that “[w]e prohibit under anathema that murderous art of crossbowmen and archers, which is hateful to God, to be employed against Christians and Catholics from now on” (available at www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum10.htm).

Ohlin (2017), p. 15.

For more on this, see Ohlin (2017).

See Liivoja (2015), p. 1167. On the notions of “technology-specific” law, “technology-neutral” law, and “technology-indifferent” law, see Koops (2006).

Nasu and McLaughlin (2014), p. 5.

The battle of Alesia (52 BC), which was fought between Roman legions led by Julius Ceaser and a confederation of Gallic tribes, is a famous example. The Romans, albeit outnumbered by the enemy, won thanks to their better training and the genius of their commander.

In Europe, this shift was marked by the reforms of the Roman consul, Gaius Marius (107 BC).

See State of Israel, The Operation in Gaza (27 December 2008 – 18 January 2009): Factual and Legal Aspects (July 2009), para. 2012; State of Israel, The 2014 Gaza Conflict (7 June – 24 August 2014): Factual and Legal Aspects (May 2015), para. 237; Macedonia (2002) and Fletcher (2009).

Ibid.

The reference is to the novel Ender’s Game, the sci-fi masterpiece by Scott Card (1985).

Garraway (2002), p. 950.

The different issue of whether international law permits individuals not to take part into military training due to their freedom of conscience is, clearly, outside the scope of this Chapter.

See Schmitt (2017), p. 434.

See EECC, Partial Award: Central Front – Ethiopia’s Claim 2, 28 April 2004, para. 108.

Ibid, para. 103.

Ibid, paras. 109–110 (emphases added).

For two notable exceptions, see Vierucci (2006), pp. 719–723; Roscini (2014), p. 235.

On the principle of precaution under international humanitarian law, see, generally, Quéguiner (2008), Corn (2015) and Sassòli and Quintin (2014).

Emphases added.

See Scovazzi (2005), p. 715, footnote No. 32; Vierucci (2006), pp. 720–721.

On the autonomous character of the obligations arising from the principle of precaution, see Kolb (2014), p. 168; Longobardo (2017).

See Article 3(4) of Protocol II annexed to the 1980 Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects.

Responsibilities and Obligations of States Sponsoring Persons and Entities with Respect to Activities in the Area, Advisory Opinion, 1 February 2011, ITLOS Reports 2011, p. 10, para. 110. The distinction between obligations of means or conduct and obligations of result has been introduced in the debate regarding the law of international responsibility by the special rapporteur Roberto Ago (draft Articles 20 and 21 in Report of the International Law Commission on its 29th Session (1977), p. 11). Even if Ago’s proposal was not included in the DARS, the distinction between obligations of means or conduct and obligations of result has attracted the attention of many scholars (see Combacau (1981), Conforti (1989), Dupuy (1999), Marchesi (2003), Economides (2010) and Wolfrum (2010)).

See ICJ, Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, 26 February 2007, ICJ Reports 2007, p. 43, para. 430.

On due diligence, see Pisillo Mazzeschi (1989), Pisillo Mazzeschi (1992), Lozano Contreras (2006), Koivurova (2013) and Kulesza (2016). For more on the principle of due diligence in international humanitarian law, see Longobardo (forthcoming).

Emphasis added.

See the critical remarks offered by Vierucci (2006), p. 722.

See Dinstein (2016), pp. 144–145.

On this duty, see, generally, Hampson (1989), Garraway (2002), Stubbins Bates (2014) and Mikos-Skuza (2015).

According to the Preamble of the Oxford Manual, “It is not sufficient for sovereigns to promulgate new laws. It is essential, too, that they make these laws known among all people, so that when a war is declared, the men called upon to take up arms to defend the causes of the belligerent States, may be thoroughly impregnated with the special rights and duties attached to the execution of such a command”.

On the link between knowledge of international humanitarian law and respect for international humanitarian law, see German Federal Ministry of Defence, Law of Armed Conflict: Manual (2013), Sect. 1504; Surbeck (1984), pp. 540–543; Stubbins Bates (2014). On the mechanisms of implementation of international humanitarian law, see, generally, Benvenuti and Bartolini (2012).

See Sassòli (2007), p. 46.

Spoeri (2013), p. 115.

Emphasis added. See, also, Article 83 AP I.

Emphases added.

Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck (2005), rule 142: “States and parties to the conflict must provide instruction in international humanitarian law to their armed forces”.

Emphases added. See also Article 48 of the 1949 II Geneva Convention; Article 127 of the 1949 III Geneva Convention; Article 144 of the 1949 II Geneva Convention; Article 25 of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict; Article 6 of the 1980 Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons.

Emphases added.

Verri (1984), p. 615; Spoeri (2013), pp. 118–119; Mikos-Skuza (2015), pp. 607–608.

See Article 4(1)(g), Statutes of the International Committee of the Red Cross (adopted on 21 December 2017 and came into force on 1 January 2018): “The role of the ICRC shall be in particular: […] to work for the understanding and dissemination of knowledge of international humanitarian law applicable in armed conflicts and to prepare any development thereof”.

See Spoeri (2013), pp. 119–120.

Emphasis added.

See Spoeri (2013), pp. 119–120; Müller (2016), para. 2776. According to Fletcher (2009), p. 72, “[b]oth education and training are needed: training to provide the knowledge and skills needed to perform military tasks and jobs, and education to help military personnel at all levels decide when and how to apply the knowledge and skills that they acquire through training”.

Müller (2016), para. 2759.

Stubbins Bates (2014), p. 796.

Bothe et al. (1982), p. 83.

See Australian Defence Forces, Law of Armed Conflict (2006), section 13.9: “The manner of dissemination is left to the states themselves and may be by means of orders, courses of instruction, commentaries or manuals”. See, also, Junod (1984), p. 360.

Garraway (2002), p. 950.

See Mikos-Skuza (2015), pp. 612–613.

See, e.g., ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, Case No. IT-95-14/1-A, Judgment, 24 March 2000, para. 114; ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Hadžihasanović & Kubura, Case No. IT-01-47-T, Judgement, 15 March 2006, paras. 856; ICC, The Prosecutor v. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Case No. ICC-01/05-01/08-3343, Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 21 March 2016, paras. 735–741. For more on this, see Blank (2017).

EECC, Eritrea’s Claim 17, Partial Award, 1 July 2003, para. 60; EECC, Ethiopia’s Claim 4, Partial Award, 1 July 2003, para. 67.

See Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. USA), Judgment, 27 June 1986, ICJ Reports 1986, p. 14, paras. 118–122 and 255–256.

Interestingly, the US Department of Defence, Law of War Manual (June 2015, update December 2016), Sect. 6.5.9.3 affirms that international humanitarian law rules “impose obligations on persons [rather than] on the weapons themselves; of course, an inanimate object could not assume an ‘obligation’ in any event. […] The law of war does not require weapons to make legal determinations, even if the weapon (e.g., through computers, software, and sensors) may be characterized as capable of making factual determinations, such as whether to fire the weapon or to select and engage a target. […] Rather, it is persons who must comply with the law of war”.

See Report of the 2017 Group of Governmental Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, 20 November 2017, https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/B5B99A4D2F8BADF4C12581DF0048E7D0/$file/2017_CCW_GGE.1_2017_CRP.1_Advanced_+corrected.pdf, paras. 15–17. On the issue of sufficient human control, see Chengeta (2017).

Garraway (2002), p. 952.

US Department of Defence, Law of War Manual (June 2015, update December 2016), section 659.

Ibid., Sect. 16.

Ibid., Sect. 6.5.8.

German Federal Ministry of Defence, Law of Armed Conflict: Manual (2013), Sect. 486.

Ibid., Sects. 110–111.

UK Ministry of Defence, UK Air and Space Doctrine (2nd edn, 2017), Sects. 2.20 and 4.15.

Ibid., Sects. 2.3, 2.21 and 3.10.

See Schmitt (2017).

Garraway (2002), p. 952.

Pictet (1951), p. 348.

See supra Sect. 2.

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Titel: Training and Education of Armed Forces in the Age of High-Tech Hostilities
verfasst von: Marco Longobardo
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: Use and Misuse of New Technologies
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-05647-6

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-05648-3

Copyright-Jahr: 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05648-3_4

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