The study aimed to identify different trajectories of personal growth (PG) following the transition to parenthood, as well as factors that predict these trajectories.
Method
Parents (n = 788) completed self-report questionnaires in three phases: when infants were 3–12 months-old, six months later and again six months later. Latent Class Growth Analyses (LCGA) and Growth Mixture Modeling (GMM) were used to identify latent subgroups of individuals based on common trajectories of PG. Stepwise multinominal regression models were used to identify significant determinants of personal growth trajectories.
Results
Four trajectories were found: (1) constructive; (2) high-stable; (3) low-stable; and (4) moderately delayed. Being a woman and higher coping versatility were related to the high-stable trajectory, higher economic status was related to the low-stable trajectory, and higher parental distress was related to the moderately-delayed trajectory.
Conclusions
The study offers insights into growth in first-time parents of young infants by distinguishing between four trajectories and showing that economic status, as well as the psychological variables of parental distress and coping flexibility, might differentiate between different growth patterns. The results contribute to the theoretical understanding of the complex experience of personal growth, which, in turn, can serve professionals in the design of appropriate personalized interventions for new parents.
Hinweise
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The existing literature on reactions to post-traumatic or post-stressful events tends to agree that long-term negative reactions to traumatic stress (i.e., posttraumatic stress symptoms) are highly heterogeneous and demonstrate a vastly complex and fluctuating course over the years, sometimes extending throughout the life span (e.g., Bonanno et al., 2012; Solomon & Mikulincer, 2006). No such consensus has been reached concerning the positive effects of stress-evoking events, such as post-traumatic growth (Tedeschi et al., 2018) or personal growth (PG; Schaefer & Moos, 1992). In general, the literature on the negative effects of stress-related events indicates four trajectories: (1) a chronic PTSD trajectory, displayed by survivors who experience clinical or significant but subclinical levels of PTSD that persist over time, i.e., a high and stable pattern of no change; (2) a delayed PTSD trajectory, which characterizes survivors who do not demonstrate either clinical or subclinical levels of PTSD initially, but begin to do so at a later stage; (3) a recovery trajectory, exhibited by survivors who display clinical or subclinical levels of PTSD initially but evidence a significant decline later on; and (4) a resilient trajectory, describing survivors who do not show significant levels of PTSD at any point in time, i.e., a low and stable pattern of no change (Bonanno, 2004; Solomon et al., 2018). The current study adopts this general notion of various paths for the response to stressful events in order to examine potential trajectories of PG following a unique event in the individual’s life span: becoming a parent.
1 Personal Growth
Personal growth (Schaefer & Moos, 1992, or posttraumatic growth; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996) is defined as a set of positive psychological changes experienced as the result of struggling with challenging life circumstances (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996), and is comprised of changes in five domains: improved interpersonal relationships; the development of new paths or opportunities in life; a sense of higher self-reliance or a greater sense of personal strength; greater appreciation of the value of life; and a better understanding of personal spirituality or stronger religious faith.
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Schaefer and Moos (1992) suggested a conceptual framework where PG is affected by four groups of determinants: characteristics of the life crisis or transition such as the perception of the severity of the event; personal factors such as demographic characteristics and personal resources; environmental factors such as familial and social resources; and cognitive appraisal and coping responses. According to their model, PG can be investigated through either or all these groups of variables. In the current study we focused on parental distress as a characteristic of the life transition, on personal factors, and on coping capabilities.
Despite the fact that personal growth is defined as a change, most research on PG to date has examined this phenomenon in retrospect at a single point in time following the event (e.g., Kruckenberg et al., 2021;, Rozen et al., 2018). Few studies have employed prospective or longitudinal designs (e.g., Barraza Illanes & Calvo Francés, 2018;, Ben-Yaakov & Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2023; Sawyer et al., 2012; Taubman – Ben-Ari & Spielman, 2014), and even fewer have explored the trajectories of PG over time (e.g., Iimura & Taku, 2018; Pat-Horenczyk et al., 2016). This is surprising given the fact that most scholars see PG as an ongoing process (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004; Tedeschi et al., 2007), and therefore a concept that should be examined over time (Pat-Horenczyk et al., 2016). In other words, although the idea that PG is a process and may change over time is well accepted, previous research has mostly studied the factors that are associated with its emergence (Tedeschi et al., 2018), with little attention paid to its later development (Ben-Yaakov & Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2023; Pat-Horenczyk et al., 2016; Taubman – Ben-Ari & Spielman, 2014). It is thus evident that further examination of trajectories, especially concerning PG following life transitions, may provide useful insights for both theory and practice.
1.1 Personal Growth in the Transition to Parenthood
The transition to parenthood is one of the most significant life events in an individual’s life (Cowan & Cowan, 2000; Feeney et al., 2001). Although often perceived unidimensionally as a joyful and fulfilling event, parents may also experience it as stressful due to the heightened demands put by the situation, loss of sleep and former way of life, challenges to spousal and other interpersonal relationship (Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2019). Consequently, it may adversely affect the individual’s mental state (Parfitt & Ayers, 2014; Wardenaar et al., 2014), as well as the child and the broader family (Feinberg et al., 2016; Kluwer, 2010; Pinto & Figueiredo, 2022). At the same time, however, adverse emotional experiences may also lead to positive outcomes, such as personal growth, a fact that has been shown repeatedly over the last decade (Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2019; Taubman – Ben-Ari et al., 2009).
Taking a step further, we aimed to examine trajectories of PG, using a longitudinal design to create a comprehensive and integrated model of changes in growth following the birth of a first child over three measurement waves, and exploring background and psychological variables, specifically parental distress (a characteristic of the event) and coping flexibility (a personal resource), as potential predictors. Our goal is to identify multiple trajectories, thereby overcoming the limitations of previous studies that have either measured PG cross-sectionally or as a single trajectory of growth.
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1.2 Prenatal Distress
Whereas some longitudinal investigations report that experiences of growth are reactions to distress (Dekel et al., 2012), others claim that the two constructs are unrelated (Salsman et al., 2009; Shakespeare-Finch & Lurie-Beck, 2014). The literature indicates that the initial months after the birth of a first child may lead to adverse mental changes (Mckenzie & Carter, 2013; Saxbe et al., 2018), expressed in anxiety (Don et al., 2014), depression (Fredriksen et al., 2019), and parental distress (Brannan & Hefflinger, 2001; Reid & Taylor, 2015). The current study therefore examines the level of parental distress as a potential characteristic of the different trajectories of PG. Parental distress is defined as tension experienced by a parent in different domains, such as marital relationships, social relationships, and conflicts with the child (Abidin, 1995). Research shows that parents who report higher levels of parental distress are generally less responsive, warm, and affectionate, are more likely to use assertive parenting techniques (Jackson & Choi, 2018; Khoury-Kassabri et al., 2014), and report more negative parent-child interactions (Cooley et al., 2014; Whiteside-Mansell et al., 2007). A study examining the association between parental distress and PG following the transition to parenthood revealed a positive correlation between these variables (Porat-Zyman et al., 2017). On the other hand, another study found a negative association between them soon after the transition to parenthood, as well as one year later (Ben-Yaakov & Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2023).
1.3 Coping Flexibility
The second psychological variable explored in this study is coping flexibility, defined as a cognitive change in coping patterns in response to changing situations, and the adoption of effective coping strategies for dealing with these situations (Cheng, 2001). This term consists on two dimensions: versatility, which is the ability to switch between assimilative and accommodative coping strategies according to both personal goals and situational demands; and reflective coping, which is the ability to generate and consider diverse options, and then evaluate the suitability of a coping strategy in a given situation (Vriezekolk et al., 2012). Studies have found that the ability to be psychologically flexible in utilizing different strategies as specific situations require is a valuable resilience factor (McCracken & Morley, 2014). However, only a few studies have considered the association between coping flexibility and personal growth. One such study examined bereaved siblings and found that a higher level of coping flexibility was associated with higher posttraumatic growth (Cohen & Katz, 2015). Another study, conducted among women undergoing fertility treatment, reported that greater coping flexibility was significantly associated with higher PG (Abu-Sharkia et al., 2023).
2 The Current Study
The current study seeks to expand our understanding of the patterns of change in the PG of new parents over the course of one year (starting 3–12 months after childbirth), and to identify their sociodemographic and psychological correlates. On the basis of the few longitudinal studies conducted so far, we expected that changes in PG among new parents would be heterogeneous. However, as the study was conducted among new parents of infants who were up to one year after childbirth, it may be assumed that for some, at least, PG had already begun to emerge (Spielman & Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2009; Rozen et al., 2018), so that some of the trajectories would represent stability rather than change. Still, these trajectories may differ in respect to the independent variables considered in the study. Thus, we examined the possibility of heterogeneous trajectories of PG and sought to identify their specific covariates (Husson et al., 2017). We expected sociodemographic and psychological variables to covariate with the explored trajectories. Previous studies report that higher PG was associated with lower age (e.g., Ben-Yaakov & Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2021; Berman et al., 2021), lower level of education (e.g., Berman et al., 2021; Rozen et al., 2018), lower economic status (Rozen et al., 2018), being a woman (Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2019), and better coping flexibility (Abu-Sharkia et al., 2023; Cohen & Katz, 2015). In addition, higher parental distress was related to lower PG (Ben-Yaakov & Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2021). Due to the lack of relevant previous research, we were unable to hypothesize the patterns of the trajectories that would emerge.
On the basis of the literature, the following hypotheses were formulated.
1.
Changes in PG among new parents during the course of one year (starting between 3 and 12 months after the childbirth) will be heterogeneous, so that parents will differ in terms of their starting point as well as in the amount and direction of change in PG over time.
2.
The different trajectories of change will be associated with sociodemographic and psychological variables (specifically parental distress and coping flexibility). Also, lower age, lower level of education and economic status, being a woman, and better coping flexibility (versatility, reflectivity) will be associated with a higher starting point of PG, whereas higher parental distress will be related to lower initial PG.
3 Method
3.1 Participants and Procedure
The current study is based on data collected for a larger research project, part of which was published in two previous articles, one relating to Phase 1 (Ben-Yaakov & Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2021), and the other to the three phases, with a different focus and a different set of variables (Ben-Yaakov & Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2023). Following approval of the university’s Institutional Review Board, a convenience sample was recruited by posting a request on social media forums for parents. Those who agreed to participate in the study were sent an electronic version of the questionnaire and asked to distribute it to other parents as well. They completed three sets of questionnaires at six-month intervals. In Phase 1, inclusion criteria consisted of being the parent of a first child aged 3–12 months and being able to understand and complete a questionnaire in Hebrew. Participants were informed that the study aimed to investigate parents’ thoughts and feelings during the transition to parenthood. Since this is a longitudinal study, they were asked to provide identifying information in a separate section at the end of the questionnaire. They were assured that the data would be used solely for research purposes and would remain confidential. Participants gave their informed consent on the first page of the form.
The sample consisted of 788 new parents (702 mothers and 86 fathers). Most were born in Israel (84%), were Jewish (93.7%), and worked at a full- or part-time job (68 0.4%). Their age ranged from 19 to 43 (M = 29.9; SD = 4.18) and education from 12 to 23 years (M = 15.7, SD = 2.3). About half of the parents (46.5%) reported average economic status, 22.1% reported an economic status below average, and 31.4% reported above-average status. The large majority (95.5%) had a single child, and the rest (4.5%) had twins. In terms of the pregnancy and labor, 23.3% of the participants reported a high-risk pregnancy, and 65.1% reported vaginal birth while the rest reported either vacuum extraction delivery (11.7%) or a C-Sect. (23.2). In respect to the children, 94.8% were born with no health problems or any form of developmental issue, and 97% were reported to have no developmental, psychological, or health related problems at the time of data collection. Boys accounted for 50.7% of the infants, with age of all infants ranging from 3 to 12 months (M = 6.7, SD = 2.8). Only parents who completed the questionnaires in all three phases were included in the analysis. Of the 2182 parents who agreed to participate in Phase 1, 1045 (47.9%) completed the questionnaire in Phase 2, about 6 months later, and of these, 788 (75.4%) completed the questionnaire in Phase 3 after about another 6 months. The attrition rate (37.7% of the original sample) is acceptable for a longitudinal study, and comparable to other longitudinal studies of parents after the birth of their first child (e.g., Condon et al., 2004, 34.3%; Kluwer & Johnson, 2007, 48.6%). It may be assumed that the main reason for the attrition rate was the parents’ lack of availability at this demanding time in their lives.
3.2 Instruments
Post Traumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996), adapted for parents (Taubman – Ben-Ari et al., 2011), was used to assess PG. It consists of 21 items tapping positive changes since the birth of the first child. Responses are given on a 6-point scale from 0 (I did not experience this change) to 5 (I experienced this change to a very great degree). A total PG score was calculated for each participant by averaging their responses to all items, with higher scores indicating greater PG. Cronbach’s α in the current study was 0.90 in all phases.
Parental Distress Factor of the Parenting Stress Index–Short Form (PSI-SF; Abidin, 1995) was used to measure parents’ psychological distress in Phase 1 of the study. Following previous studies (Sanner & Neece, 2018;, Schechter et al., 2010), we employed only one factor containing 12 items assessing parental distress (the other factors in the index, i.e., parent-child dysfunctional interaction and difficult child, were not relevant to this study). Participants were asked to rate the extent to which each item was descriptive of their feelings on a scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree). A score for each participant was calculated by averaging their responses to the 12 items, with higher scores reflecting greater distress. Cronbach’s alpha in the current study was 0.85.
Flexibility in Coping with Stress Questionnaire (COFLEX; Vriezekolk et al., 2012) was used to assess coping flexibility. The questionnaire contains 13 items that measure the ability to adapt and demonstrate versatility (9 items, e.g., “I can easily change my approach when necessary”) and reflective coping (4 items, e.g., “I think about what is really important to me”). Participants were asked to indicate on a 4-point scale from 1 (very rarely or never) to 4 (almost always), the extent to which each item described them. Cronbach’s alphas of 0.79 and 0.68 were found for versatility and reflective coping, respectively. Each participant was assigned a score on each subscale, which was calculated by averaging their responses to the relevant items, with higher scores indicating greater versatility or reflective coping.
A sociodemographic questionnaire was used to obtain data regarding the background variables of age, gender, education, economic status (bellow average, average, above average), health status, marital status, infant age, high risk pregnancy (yes, no), and delivery type (vaginal, vacuum extraction, C-section).
3.3 Data Analysis
To evaluate the possibility of heterogeneity of trajectories of PG, we began by estimating a one-class model assuming homogeneity of change over time. Next, models were estimated with an increasing number of trajectories (n + 1 class solution) using LCGM, assuming a fixed intercept and slope. Both linear and quadratic time trends were examined. Infant’s age was entered into the original model as a potential predictor of class membership. This variable was not a significant predictor and therefore was excluded from the analysis. To address this critical point further, we tested for differences between the different classes in infant’s age during the first measurement (F = 1.62, p = .18) and examined the correlation between infant’s age during the first measurement and PTGI scores at this point for the entire sample (r = .04, p = .30) and using a moderation analysis (class X infant’s age, B = 0.01, p = .16). These tests show no effect for infant’s age on either trajectory or starting point. Finally, to explore the effect of individual differences, all analyses were replicated using GMM, first by exploring random intercepts, followed by a full random effects modeling process (intercept + slope). The final model was chosen on the basis of several criteria. The first was goodness of fit, evaluated using the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), the Sample-size Adjusted BIC (SABIC), and Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC). For all indicators, the lowest values suggest the best solution. A decrease of at least 10 points is required as an indicator of improved fit (Raftery, 1995). The second criterion was the accuracy of classification, measured using entropy ranging from 0 to 1, where 1 indicates a perfect classification. Entropy values exceeding 0.70 were considered acceptable (Aris et al., 2021; Hoekstra & Twisk, 2015). Finally, as classes smaller than 5% of the sample are considered unreliable and difficult to replicate, models including such classes were excluded. Data analysis was performed using the LCMM package for R. In the final stage of analysis, the bias-adjusted three-step approach (Bakk et al., 2013) was used to identify significant covariates of a trajectory in respect to sociodemographic and psychological variables (parental distress and coping flexibility) by performing a multinominal regression analysis using SPSS (v.28).
4 Results
Descriptive statistics for personal growth in Phases 1–3, as well as parental distress and coping flexibility in Phase 1, are presented in Table 1. Results of the primary analysis favored a latent class growth model, as all GMM models estimating random effects (intercept only and intercept + slope) for N + 1 classes produced entropy values below the acceptable threshold (< 0.70). For the LCGM, estimating linear and quadratic trajectories resulted in similar fit measures and near identical class distribution, with only one subclass showing a near significant quadratic trend (p = .056). As a result, we focused on the classification of trajectories produced by fixed linear effects models. Description of the models appears in Table 2.
Table 1
Descriptive statistics for personal growth in phases 1–3 and psychological variables in phase 1
Mean
Median
SD
Minimum
Maximum
Personal growth Phase 1
4.10
4.19
0.75
1.29
5.86
Personal growth Phase 2
4.08
4.14
0.76
1.00
5.86
Personal growth Phase 3
4.18
4.24
0.73
1.14
5.95
Parental distress Phase 1
2.67
2.69
0.69
1.00
4.69
Coping versatility Phase 1
2.95
3.00
0.46
1.44
4
Coping reflection Phase 1
3.17
3.12
0.45
1.5
4
Table 2
Results of selection indices for growth models
Model
BIC
AIC
SABIC
Number of parameters
Entropy
Smallest class
% of N (Frequency)
1-trajectory
5300.9
5286.8
5291.3
3
2-trajecotory
4638.4
4610.3
4619.3
6
0.80
24.7% (195)
3-trajecotory
4299.8
4257.8
4271.2
9
0.79
6.21% (49)
4-trajecotory
4201.0
4144.9
4162.8
12
0.75
5.1% (40)
5-trajecotory
4197.1
4127.0
4149.4
15
0.70
4.7% (37)
Note: AIC – Akaike information criteria, BIC – Bayesian information criteria, SABIC -sample adjusted BIC (lower is better)
Of the models explored, the 4-class model presented the best fit measures, as indicated by the lowest BIC, SABIC and AIC values while maintaining acceptable entropy (> 0.70) and not including classes < 5% of the total sample. The models are presented in Table 3. Figure 1 presents the different trajectories based on the regression coefficients produced by the LCGM.
Table 3
Latent class growth model estimates for personal growth trajectories
Trajectory
% of total
intercept
SE
Slope
SE
Wald
p
1
48.47
4.14
0.05
0.04
0.01
2.69
0.006
2
21.95
4.81
0.06
0.02
0.02
1.06
0.288
3
5.1
2.50
0.11
-0.04
0.05
-0.77
0.440
4
24.48
3.42
0.06
0.06
0.02
2.34
0.018
Fig. 1
Schematic Personal Growth Trajectories. Note: Trajectory 1–48.4%; Trajectory 2–21.9%; Trajectory 3–5.1%; Trajectory 4–24.4. Trajectories represent changes in growth as a function of LCGM regression coefficients for each trajectory
×
As can be seen from the tables, the modal (largest) trajectory (48.47% of participants) showed a significant positive change originating in average growth in Phase 1 (4.14, M = 4.10 for the entire sample). The second trajectory (21.95%) showed a stable pattern of personal growth originating in higher-than-average growth in Phase 1 (4.81). The third and smallest trajectory (5.1%) showed a negative but non-significant change starting with the lowest PG values in Phase 1 (2.50). The final trajectory (24.48%) showed a positive change in PG over time originating in moderate growth values in Phase 1 (3.42).
4.1 Covariates of the Trajectories
To identify covariates that may distinguish between the trajectories, we conducted a multinominal regression with class as outcome variable and the modal trajectory (1: average initial PG with significant positive growth) as the reference category. The model included psychological variables (coping flexibility and parental distress), general background variables (gender, age, number of children, education, economic status, parent health status) and pregnancy- and birth-related variables (high-risk pregnancy, delivery type, infant’s age and sex) as predictors. Background variables were entered using a forward stepwise approach, which allows the algorithm to identify an optimal model. Parental distress and coping flexibility (versatility and reflection) were entered using forced entry which includes all variables in the model regardless of their contribution to a significant classification. The final model significantly predicted trajectory classification (χ 2(18) = 138.74, p < .001, R2n = 0.18). Results of the analysis are presented in Table 4.
Table 4
Multinominal Regression coefficients of Sociodemographic and Psychological predictors of Personal Growth trajectories
Predictor
Total χ 2
p
Trajectory2
Trajectory3
Trajectory4
B
p
B
p
B
P
Gender (women = 1)
31.64
< 0.001
1.13
0.015
-1.75
< 0.001
-0.59
0.048
Years of Education
10.97
0.012
-0.08
0.075
0.12
0.102
0.07
0.081
Economic status
24.92
< 0.001
-0.30
0.008
0.80
< 0.001
0.05
0.623
Parental distress
9.72
0.021
-0.22
0.133
0.31
0.214
0.27
0.047
Coping versatility
29.06
< 0.001
0.08
0.008
-0.06
0.239
-0.10
< 0.001
Coping reflection
5.88
0.117
0.08
0.176
0.16
0.123
-0.04
0.430
Note: Trajectory 1 was used as the reference category
Education, gender, and economic status emerged as significant covariates of trajectory classification. Age, health status, number of children, high-risk pregnancy, delivery type, and the age and gender of the infant did not predict classification significantly and were therefore excluded from the final model. In regard to gender, compared to the modal trajectory (1), women were more likely to belong to trajectory 2 and less likely to belong to trajectories 3 and 4. In other words, women tended to report higher initial PG, after which it was stable over time (trajectory 2).
In regard to economic status, compared to the modal trajectory (1), higher economic status predicted higher probability of classification into class 3, and lower probability of classification into class 2. In other words, participants reporting higher economic status were most likely to report lower initial PG values with no significant change over time (trajectory 3). The overall effect for education was significant, but the variable was not a significant predictor of classification based on the modal trajectory as a reference point.
In addition to background variables, the psychological resources - coping versatility and parental distress were found to be significant predictors of trajectory classification, whereas coping reflection did not contribute significantly to any of the trajectories. Compared to the modal trajectory (1), participants reporting high coping versatility were more likely to be classified into trajectory 2 and less likely to be classified into trajectory 4. In other words, participants with higher coping versatility were most likely to report higher initial values of PG, after which it was stable over time (trajectory 2). Also, compared to the modal trajectory (1), higher parental distress predicted higher probability of classification into class 4. Thus, participants reporting higher parental distress were most likely to report moderate initial PG values followed by a positive change in PG.
5 Discussion
The current study aimed to describe various trajectories of PG following the transition to parenthood. The results confirm Hypothesis 1, showing that PG trajectories are heterogeneous and vary across individuals. Four PG trajectories were identified. The largest class, Trajectory 1, characterizing almost half of the participants, begins with an average PG in Phase 1 that undergoes a significant positive change over time. This can be seen as a constructive trajectory, as it starts with average PG up to one year following childbirth and continues to develop in the course of the following year. Trajectory 2, typifying about a fifth of the participants, starts at relatively high PG in Phase 1, and remains more or less stable over time. This can be termed a high-stable trajectory. The third trajectory, evidenced by only 5% of the participants, starts with the lowest PG in Phase 1, and although it may show a somewhat negative trend, it is non-significant in regard to changes over time. It can thus be defined as a low-stable trajectory. Finally, the fourth trajectory, characterizing about a quarter of the participants, starts with moderate PG in Phase 1, and exhibits a positive change over time. This pattern can be termed a moderately delayed trajectory.
The four PG trajectories found here provide insight into PG in general, where longitudinal analyses are still very scant (Cheng et al., 2018; Hamama-Raz et al., 2019; Pat-Horenczyk et al., 2016), and PG following the transition to parenthood in particular, which, to the best of our knowledge, has never previously been explored. The examination of multiple trajectories, rather than an average trajectory of PG or PTG, might offer not only a more complex understanding of the phenomenon of growth, but also a renewed, and perhaps even contradictory, interpretation of previous findings (e.g., the associations between stress and growth; Dekel et al., 2012; Salsman et al., 2009; Shakespeare-Finch & Lurie-Beck, 2014).
In general, in line with other studies (Garrido-Hernansaiz & Alonso-Tapia, 2017; Rzeszutek et al., 2017; Rzeszutek & Gruszczyńska, 2021), only none to modest changes in PG were observed here. However, also in line with those studies, the picture that emerges is complex, indicating different developmental paths for new parents. It is particularly important to note that the growth process is not necessarily constant, nor is it similar for all participants. Rather, it is diverse, with different starting points and various degrees of change over time. Previous studies that have followed parents over two-four years, examining a single trajectory, have shown that PG is higher two (Taubman – Ben-Ari & Spielman, 2014) and four (Taubman – Ben-Ari et al., 2019) years following childbirth. Nevertheless, the results are not identical to those of other studies of PG trajectories conducted in other populations (e.g., Pat-Horenczyk et al., 2016; Rzeszutek & Gruszczyńska, 2022). This difference suggests the possibility of PG specificity according to the context or the stress-related event triggering the growth (Rzeszutek & Gruszczyńska, 2022). Indeed, the challenges of becoming a parent are ongoing and dynamic, and not a result of a one-time event, such as an earthquake or the death of a loved one.
In confirmation of Hypothesis 2, selected sociodemographic and psychological variables were significantly associated with a given trajectory. Women and those with higher versatility in coping displayed a higher tendency for Trajectory 2, that is the trajectory with the highest starting point and stability over time. Those with higher levels of economic status showed a greater tendency for Trajectory 3, which has the lowest starting point and remains stable over time. The finding concerning gender is in line with previous studies indicating that PG in general is more prevalent among women than men (Vishnevsky et al., 2010). The finding concerning economic status is similar to previous literature showing that lower economic status is associated with higher PG (or put differently, as relevant to the current study, that higher economic status is related to lower PG) among both mothers and fathers (Rozen et al., 2018; Taubman – Ben-Ari et al., 2018). The fact that coping flexibility, reflected in versatility, was related to this high-stable trajectory as well is also in line with findings among breast cancer survivors (Pat-Horenczyk et al., 2016), showing that higher coping flexibility increased the odds of displaying one of the posttraumatic growth trajectories with a higher starting point (what the authors term struggling or constructive).
In contrast, Trajectory 3, with the lowest starting point of PG which remained stable over time, was associated with higher economic status, and was less likely to characterize women. This suggests that being men and having better economic resources, might not experience PG when becoming parents, nor do they change over time. The fact that this was a very small group indicates that most parents in our sample indeed experienced moderate to high levels of PG in the wake of this unique and significant life transition (Phase 1), but differed in their ability to experience additional growth over time.
The remaining two trajectories, 1 and 4, reveal changes over the 1-year period following parenthood. Trajectory 1, the constructive pattern, begins with an average starting point of PG and exhibits a positive change over time. Trajectory 4, the moderately-delayed pattern with a moderate starting point of PG, also showed a positive change over time. In this case, higher parental distress and lower endorsement of coping versatility were associated with this trajectory, suggesting that experiencing more parental distress or a lower endorsement of coping versatility hinder PG at the beginning, but do not prevent it from developing when parents gradually adjust to their new role. The coping flexibility dimension of reflection was not associated with any of the trajectories, a finding which warrants further exploration in future studies.
The findings of the current study indicate that most new parents experience moderate to high levels of PG, either close to the life transition or at a later stage, with even those who start at a relatively low level of PG are able to achieve a higher level of growth over time. Even higher parental distress and lower versatility in coping, which are related to a moderate starting point, do not prevent parents from developing higher growth as time goes by. In addition, the results suggest that coping versatility is related to a higher and more stable experience of PG.
It is challenging to compare the current findings with previous ones, as each study related to another context even if the outcome variable was similar. Thus, continuing with this line of research in even more diverse contexts will eventually allow for a wider understanding of modes of change in personal growth over time.
5.1 Limitations
Several limitations of the study should be noted. First, the sample size of Trajectory 3 is quite small (just over 5% of the sample). Secondly, the sample is relatively homogenous in some aspects (gender, education), which may limit the generalizability of the results. Also, dropout between phases might be considered another limitation, as only those who completed all three waves were included in analysis (which might reflect, for example, that those with higher parental distress, or less coping flexibility preferred not to continue their participation). Finally, given the lack of data beyond 24 months post-partum, we could not address the longer-term trajectory of PG among new parents. This issue warrants further exploration.
5.2 Implications of the Study
These limitations notwithstanding, the current study adds to our understanding of the PG of new parents by providing evidence of specific trajectories following the transition to parenthood, along with background and psychological correlates. Its specific strengths include a large sample of parents, and longitudinal data collected from shortly after the transition to parenthood and up to 24 months post-partum. The results expand existing knowledge of positive psychological reactions to this life transition. As we are not aware of prior studies that have examined the trajectories of PG among new parents, we believe that the current study is a pioneer in establishing the diversity of PG, in contrast to the more common perspective of this phenomenon as unidirectional. Thus, although previous longitudinal inquiries have shown that PG develops over time (e.g., Ben-Yaakov & Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2023; Sawyer et al., 2012; Taubman – Ben-Ari & Spielman, 2014), the present investigation shows that for some it remains stable at different levels, whereas for others, it displays moderate development. Further studies are needed to establish these patterns of development and to determine whether the trajectories demonstrate differential relationships with other variables, such as mental and physical health, personality traits, and cognitive characteristics, as well as their associations with additional outcomes, such as well-being and adaptation to parenthood.
The current findings have a number of clinical implications as well. Differentiating distinct trajectories of new parents’ PG may be helpful in identifying parents who need more assistance from clinical psychologists and social workers. Our study suggests that psychological intervention should target parents exhibiting low-stable and moderately delayed PG, who may benefit from support during the stressful period of becoming parents. Such interventions could encourage them to seek ways of self-development and expansion, as well as to reframe or reconstruct their mode of perceiving themselves and their surroundings. Such strategies can ultimately enhance their positive reactions to this change in their lives by promoting personal growth.
Declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
The study was conducted in compliance with ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all participants.
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