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2018 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

3. Transparency in Climate Finance After Paris: Towards a More Effective Climate Governance Framework

verfasst von : Felicity Deane, Evan Hamman

Erschienen in: Intellectual Property and Clean Energy

Verlag: Springer Singapore

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Abstract

The Paris Agreement charts a new course for measuring, reporting, verification (MRV) of State obligations with the intensification of the emphasis on the criterion of transparency. This is, in part, responsive to modern debates in regards to environmental law generally and climate law in particular. Transparency is crucial to the success or failure of climate mitigation and adaption regimes because climate governance is intimately connected to the ideals of deliberative democracy, public participation, and the rule of law. The Paris Agreement thus presents a ground-breaking and important point in time for both developed and developing States. Aligned with this requirement is the desire to increase the amount and flow of ‘climate finance’ from developed to developing states. The associated need for transparency in funding flows has been raised in part through the accusations of misused or inadequate funds, ‘tied’ funding and double counting. Though there are new informational requirements placed on states in the Paris Agreement, they also present considerable practical challenges. The purpose of this chapter is to analyse the principle of transparency in climate finance and to chart the direction of the associated informational requirements in light of the measures agreed at Paris.

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Fußnoten
1
Mirza (2003).
 
2
See, for example, CAB International (2016) Cab Direct. https://​www.​cabdirect.​org/​cabdirect/​FullTextPDF/​2017/​20173207688.​pdf. On the topic of climate migration, see also, Mayer (2016).
 
3
These problems have been foreseen for some time. See, Brookfield (1989, pp. 1–17).
 
4
See the discussion of ‘coercion’ and ‘conditionality’ in Stewart et al. (2009, Ch. 20–21).
 
5
See Dellink et al. (2009).
 
6
This is consistent with the notion of climate justice too. See Zadek (2011).
 
7
Zahar (2017).
 
8
See, Gupta (2010, pp. 1–9).
 
9
See Kosack and Fung (2014, pp. 65–87).
 
10
Forstater and Rank (2012, iv).
 
11
See, for example, Bianchi and Peters (2013, p. 10).
 
12
See, Weatherill (2007, p. 33).
 
13
Smits (2012).
 
14
See, Biermann et al. (2010, pp. 277–98).
 
15
See for example, United Nations (2017) Round-table discussion on the process to identify information to be provided under Article 9, paragraph 5, of the Paris Agreement, UN Doc FCCC/CP/2017/INF.2. Available at: http://​unfccc.​int/​resource/​docs/​2017/​cop23/​eng/​inf02.​pdf.
 
16
See for example, Transparency International (2014). Also see, Stockholm Environment Institute (2016) and Espange (2016).
 
17
United Nations (2017) Round-table discussion on the process to identify information to be provided under Article 9, paragraph 5, of the Paris Agreement, UN Doc FCCC/CP/2017/INF.2. Available at: http://​unfccc.​int/​resource/​docs/​2017/​cop23/​eng/​inf02.​pdf.
 
18
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992, Opened for signature 9 May 1992, 1771 UNTS 107 (entered into force 21 March 1994).
 
19
Backstrand and Lövbrand (2007, p. 123).
 
20
Gupta (2014).
 
21
Andonova et al. (2009, pp. 52–73).
 
22
Mayer (2017).
 
23
Bäckstrand (2008, pp. 74–102).
 
24
See Keith (2013).
 
25
Nasiritousi et al. (2016, pp. 109–126).
 
26
See Abbott (2014, pp. 57–88) and see also, Okereke et al. (2009, pp. 58–78).
 
27
For a thorough discussion of principles of international environmental law, see Sands et al. (2012).
 
28
See for example, Forstater and Rank (2012), Gupta and Mason (2016, pp. 82–90), Buchner et al. (2014), Bécault and Marx (2014); see also, Transparency International (2014).
 
29
For a discussion of the importance of sub-state (or sub-national) actors in climate governance, see, Setzer (2015, pp. 319–37).
 
30
For an overview of nodal governance, see Burris et al. (2005).
 
31
See for example the discussion in Martin (2017, Ch. 4).
 
32
Latour and Welt (1996, pp. 369–81).
 
34
See, Falzon et al. (2016, p. 6).
 
35
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2014) FOCUS: Climate Finance. Available at: http://​unfccc.​int/​focus/​climate_​finance/​items/​7001.​php.
 
36
See for example, Bowen (2011, pp. 1020–1036), and Ballesteros et al. (2010, pp. 261–312).
 
37
See for example, Grobe (2017) Climate finance: Footing the bill for a global crisis. In DW. Available at: http://​www.​dw.​com/​en/​climate-finance-footing-the-bill-for-a-global-crisis/​a-41393588.
 
38
See for example, Office of the Spokesperson (2015).
 
39
See for example, Transparency International (2014). See also this report: Falconer and Stadelmann (2014) What is climate finance? Definitions to improve tracking and scale up climate finance, Climate Policy Initiative. Available at: http://​climatepolicyini​tiative.​org/​wp-content/​uploads/​2014/​07/​Brief-on-Climate-Finance-Definitions.​pdf.
 
40
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2014) FOCUS: Climate Finance. Available at: http://​unfccc.​int/​focus/​climate_​finance/​items/​7001.​php.
 
41
United Nations Environnent Programme, About UN Environnent. Available at: https://​www.​unenvironment.​org/​about-un-environment.
 
42
See Supreme Council for Environment, Kingdom of Bahrain (2017).
 
43
Falconer and Stadelmann (2014, p. 4).
 
44
Falconer and Stadelmann (2014, p. 4).
 
46
See for example, United Nations (2017) Round-table discussion on the process to identify information to be provided under Article 9, paragraph 5, of the Paris Agreement, UN Doc FCCC/CP/2017/INF.2. Available at: http://​unfccc.​int/​resource/​docs/​2017/​cop23/​eng/​inf02.​pdf.
 
47
Buchner et al. (2011).
 
48
Buchner et al. (2011, p. iii).
 
49
Bécault and Marx (2014, p. 2).
 
50
Zadek (2011, pp. 1058–1068).
 
51
The issue of transparency and non-state actors more generally in climate governance, has taken on significant importance in recent years. As non-state actors are increasingly recognised as central players in regulation and governance, including at the global level, attention has shifted as to how accountable and transparent they really are. As writes: ‘the transparency framework is key to generating compliance with the Paris Agreement by driving accuracy, completeness, comparability and consistency of efforts by states. But again, the role of non-state actors in the hybrid architecture of the Paris Agreement is blurred. On the one hand, non-state actors are asked to cooperate with states to ensure best practice on monitoring emission reductions; on the other, non-state actors are themselves asked to reduce their emissions through voluntary commitments framed as complementary to state action and supportive of NDCs.’ See, Bäckstrand et al. (2017).
 
52
United Nations (1992) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, FCCC/INFORMAL/84 GE.05-62220 (E) 200705, article 4(5).
 
53
See, Transparency International (2014, p. 5).
 
54
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2014) Adaptation Fund. Available at: http://​unfccc.​int/​cooperation_​and_​support/​financial_​mechanism/​adaptation_​fund/​items/​3659.​php.
 
55
Australian Aid (2012, p. 1).
 
56
At COP16, the ‘Technology Mechanism’ and ‘Cancun Adaptation Framework’ were also established.
 
57
The headquarters of the GCF is in South Korea. Australia was elected to lead the GCF board in 2017.
 
58
Green Climate Fund (2017).
 
59
Popovich and Fountain (2017).
 
60
Sengupta et al. (2017).
 
61
Espange (2016, p. 9).
 
62
Espange (2016).
 
63
Espange (2016, p. 2).
 
64
Paris Agreement, Preamble [115].
 
65
Martin Lodge points out that these relationships are often characterized by different types of power imbalances. See generally, Lodge (2004) in Jordana and Levi-Faur (eds), pp. 124–44.
 
66
Moon et al. (2005). See also discussion in Curtin and Meijer (2006, p. 111).
 
67
Hollyer et al. (2014, p. 413).
 
68
Ben-Shahar and Schneider (2014).
 
69
Schauer (2011, p. 1346).
 
70
Fox (2007, p. 664). See also Transparency International (2014).
 
71
See for example, Bianchi and Peters (2013, p. 10).
 
72
Hare et al. (2010, p. 602).
 
73
Takacs (2013, pp. 665–71).
 
74
Takacs (2012, p. 523).
 
75
Rajamani (2011, pp. 136–46).
 
76
Draft decision -/CP.21, Adoption of the Paris Agreement, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Twenty-First Session, held in Paris from 30 Nov. to 11 Dec. 2015, FCCC/CP/2015/L.9/Rev.1, 12 Dec 2015.
 
77
Draft decision -/CP.21, Adoption of the Paris Agreement, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Twenty-First Session, held in Paris from 30 Nov. to 11 Dec. 2015, FCCC/CP/2015/L.9/Rev.1, 12 Dec 2015, art 13 [14].
 
78
This discussion is taken up in the discourse around climate justice. There are number of emerging works on this topic. See Shue (2014).
 
80
See Falzon (2016).
 
82
The Paris Agreement, Article 9.
 
83
The Paris Agreement, Preamble [115].
 
84
Zahar (2017, p. 102).
 
85
3.6 CBIT: the Capacity-Building Initiative for Transparency financial mechanism.
 
86
Global Environment Facility (2017) Funding. Available at: https://​www.​thegef.​org/​about/​funding.
 
87
Green Climate Fund, About the fund. Available at: http://​www.​greenclimate.​fund/​who-we-are/​about-the-fund.
 
89
UNFCCC (2012) Report of the Conference of the Parties on its seventeenth session, held in Durban from 28 November to 11 December 2011, FCCC/CP/2011/9/Add.1. Available at: http://​unfccc.​int/​resource/​docs/​2011/​cop17/​eng/​09a01.​pdf#page=​4.
 
90
UNFCCC (2012) Report of the Conference of the Parties on its seventeenth session, held in Durban from 28 November to 11 December 2011, FCCC/CP/2011/9/Add.1. Available at: http://​unfccc.​int/​resource/​docs/​2011/​cop17/​eng/​09a01.​pdf#page=​4, [57–62].
 
92
International Organization for Standardization, ISO/DIS 14080, Greenhouse gas management and related activities—Framework and principles for methodologies on climate actions. Available at: https://​www.​iso.​org/​standard/​67452.​html.
 
93
International Organization for Standardization, ISO/DIS 14080, Greenhouse gas management and related activities—Framework and principles for methodologies on climate actions. Available at: https://​www.​iso.​org/​standard/​67452.​html.
 
94
Takacs (2013, p. 668).
 
95
Transparency International (2014).
 
96
Ibid.
 
97
See Gastelumendi and Gnittke (2017, p. 247).
 
98
UNFCCC ‘Biennial Reports and National Communications: Review Challenges and Practice.’ Background Paper for the 3rd Lead Reviewers Meeting, 3 March 2016, Bonn Germany available online http://​unfccc.​int/​files/​national_​reports/​biennial_​reports_​and_​iar/​application/​pdf/​review_​practice_​guidance_​2016_​background_​paper_​rev_​26_​feb.​pdf, p. 29.
 
99
United Nations (2017) Round-table discussion on the process to identify information to be provided under Article 9, paragraph 5, of the Paris Agreement, UN Doc FCCC/CP/2017/INF.2. Available at: http://​unfccc.​int/​resource/​docs/​2017/​cop23/​eng/​inf02.​pdf, p. 3.
 
100
Ibid., p. 5.
 
101
Ibid., p. 8.
 
102
The $100 Billion goal (by 2020) was first established in 2010 at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of Parties.
 
103
See, IPCC 5th assessment report. Available at: https://​www.​ipcc.​ch/​report/​ar5/​.
 
104
Buchner et al. (2011, p. 51).
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Transparency in Climate Finance After Paris: Towards a More Effective Climate Governance Framework
verfasst von
Felicity Deane
Evan Hamman
Copyright-Jahr
2018
Verlag
Springer Singapore
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2155-9_3