Tropical Peatland Eco-management

The functions of peatlands (peat soils) can be considered based on their two main elements: (1) the peat matter and (2) the water.

Water: In peatland water, nutrient and oxygen levels are severely limited.

What are the growth strategies of native plants in tropical peatlands under nutrient and oxygen-limited conditions?

Oxygen absorption strategies: Two strategies for oxygen absorption are observed in native peatland forests:

Nutrient uptake strategies: Two strategies for nutrient uptake are observed in native peatland forests:

Thus, tropical peatlands are extremely limited by their oxygen (low solubility in water) and nutrient levels; however, forest productivity is extremely high in native peatlands. In this chapter, the unique eco-physiological strategies of peatland plants are first described at the basic metabolic level. Then, a new concept for the innovative eco-management of tropical peatlands on a large scale is proposed.

In dome-shaped tropical peatlands, mainly on the maritime continent of Southeast Asia, rainfall provides the only water supply and no nutrients, which has a very strong impact on plant growth, ecosystem conservation, and peatland management.

When considering new peatland management systems in tropical peatlands, called “Eco-management in a Large-scale Ecosystem of Tropical Peatland,” the following three factors cannot be ignored.

The tropical peatlands store vast amounts of water and carbon, while they are extremely poor in nutrients. Under the conditions of these unique characteristics, peat swamp forests have been maintained. However, exploitation for agriculture and forestry has led to massive drainage of tropical peatlands, resulting in the release of carbon as CO₂ emissions. Meanwhile, the poor nutrient status of these peatlands has led to the intensive application of fertilizer to cultivate plants. It is already clear that these activities lead to the destruction of peatlands. The preservation of the close relationship and functions of water, carbon, and nutrients is essential for the maintenance and restoration of tropical peat ecosystems. To maintain or sustainably use tropical peatlands, water management systems need to be fundamentally rethought.

A key element of the tropical peatland ecosystem is the water statute. The water management system is clarified as Stock-based Water Management (WM) [irrigation system] and Drainage-based Water Management (WM) [drainage system]. The proposed eco-management of tropical peatland includes (1) the importance of Stock-based WM, (2) how to establish Stock-based WM, and (3) how to improve Drainage-based WM in Stock-based WM.

Tropical peatland management should be conducted through Stock-based WM instead of the previous and destructive Drainage-based WM. The introduction of Stock-based WM with no fertilizer would also allow for carbon-negative management. Although there are also concerns about the impacts of the destruction of tropical forests on the global water cycle, the proposed Stock-based WM system and reforestation could play an important role in pumping water into the atmosphere. Therefore, Drainage-based WM should be replaced by Stock-based WM at the earliest possible time to reduce global climate change.

The goal of conventional tropical peatland management is to reduce the groundwater level for agriculture and plantations because commercial crops and plants are generally susceptible to high soil moisture and high groundwater levels, of which conventional water management, here, is called “Drainage-based water management” (Drainage-based WM). This Drainage-based WM has been a basic technology for tropical peatland management for a long time. Recently, however, El Niño occurrences have increased, causing serious droughts in Southeast Asia, and the drained peatland has resulted in serious damage, causing severe peat and forest fires, as well as peat degradation by microorganisms. Therefore, this Drainage-based WM has been modified by canal/drain/ditch blocking. However, when big El Niño occurred, due to the limited rainfall, the water supply was reduced regardless of canal blocking in many cases.

Thus, a new water management system is required in tropical peatland, with innovative water management, which is denoted herein as “Stock-based water management” (Stock-based WM). This “Stock-based WM” is like an “irrigation system” for the paddy field. Water flow is designed to achieve a high level of water retention in the ecosystem.

In Drainage-based WM, water should drain from the tropical peatland ecosystem as soon as possible, which is called “Conventional Management.” In Stock-based WM, water should be retained in the tropical peatland ecosystem as long as possible, which is called “Eco-management.” The “Eco-management in a large-scale ecosystem of tropical peatland” comprises four components: (1) water management and land-use planning, (2) biodiversity conservation planning, (3) new technologies to preserve peat, and (4) their evaluation systems. The goals of this “Eco-management” in a large-scale tropical peatland are (1) to establish a carbon-negative system, including mitigation and adaptation strategies to global climate change; (2) to address biodiversity conservation at the landscape level; and (3) to provide socioeconomic security to the people who are already making a livelihood on the peatlands.

Tropical peatlands have attracted a great deal of attention due to their vast area in the tropics and their massive carbon and water stocks. At the same time, improper management of peatlands (i.e., drainage of peatlands, often resulting in large fires, carbon dioxide emissions that have a significant impact on global climate change, and health hazards due to smoke pollution) has been a major concern.

Conversely, little information is available on peat ecosystems, especially with respect to their biodiversity. Due to their unique nutrient-poor, humid environment, they have been considered low in biodiversity, although some reports suggest that their biodiversity is reasonably high compared to other ecosystems. Studies on flora and fauna, including aquatic animal surveys and continuous monitoring, have been performed in a landscape (socio-ecological production landscapes: Satoyama Initiative of UNU) area of West Kalimantan, which includes 115,000 ha of industrial plantations and 18,700 ha of protected forest (Decree of the Minister of Forestry 2014). As a result, a diverse range of flora and fauna and an increase in the population of the rare orangutan have been observed.

However, tropical peatlands have generally been at the forefront of large-scale agriculture and forestry development and land clearance by medium- and small-scale holders, which is threatening the conservation of biodiversity. One of the most threatening factors is fire. Once a fire breaks out, all plants and animals in an area are lost. Fires are more likely to occur and grow into large fires when peatlands are controlled by drainage systems. For this reason, it is proposed that intact peat swamp forests should remain protected areas and to prevent these forests from becoming isolated and island-like, a concept of networked green corridors, or conservation networks, is proposed. The introduction of eco-management, which does not involve drainage and maintains the water storage function of peatlands, is essential.

Most importantly, it requires an economic and environmental model that is not dependent on intact peat swamp forests and does not involve fire. For this purpose, it is essential to promote coexistence between humans and nature and simultaneously add value to economic activities. Therefore, this chapter suggests that the value chain should incorporate environmental evaluation, rather than just considering the economic aspect of the value chain.

Tropical peatlands are highly important ecosystems for storage and cycling of carbon and water and for high biomass production and biodiversity. These processes are highly dynamic due to climate change and human activity, which can cause them to become highly vulnerable and irreversible. An “integrated monitoring, reporting, and verifying” (iMRV) system for tropical peatland has become an urgent issue for management, evaluation, and monitoring of peatland dynamics. Because the tropical peatland ecosystem is dynamic, the iMRV system must address the four elements of (1) water and carbon, (2) biomass production and biodiversity, (3) deforestation and forest degradation, and (4) climate change and human impact. The innovative new iMRV system must deliver (1) real-time and high frequency, (2) high resolution (less than 1 × 1 m), (3) high-number and wide-range spectral bands such as hypersensors and PALSAR (phased array type L-band synthetic aperture radar), (4) 3-dimensional analysis, and (5) cost performance.

Certain sensing/monitoring systems are available depending on the altitude from targeting fields: ground truth (monitoring), drone/unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), and satellites.

Finally, this work proposes the “international Equator observation system (iEOS)” composed of several sensing systems. However, in the future, the minimum unit should consist of hypersensors, PALSAR, 3D photogrammetry, and GHG sensors. iEOS is necessary because the Equator and the tropics are key features of Earth (planetary) boundary conservation, which is impacted by the most dynamic ecosystems and few sensing scenes unaffected by heavy clouds.

As the tropics are exposed to large amounts of solar radiation, solar energy amelioration is highly important in tropical ecosystems. Among mechanisms of high solar energy amelioration, the water cycle is the first function that removes solar radiation energy in the form of latent heat through evaporation at the sea surface and evapotranspiration from forests. The carbon cycle is the second function as it fixes solar radiation energy into carbohydrates in plants (and forests) through photosynthesis. In addition, forests have a function in the water–carbon linkage, and it is assumed that the water–TREE–carbon linkage is a key function in the tropics, where a TREE (a simplified forest function) is a bioapparatus that serves as natural capital. The TREE model includes functions such as solar panels (leaves), batteries (stems), air conditioning (evapotranspiration), carbon sequestration (biochar), fertilizer production (N₂ fixation), water dams (water reserves in the soil), and soil conservation (through the application of organic matter).

As the water–plant–carbon linkage depends on solar energy input, the natural ecosystems in which this system occurs are defined as “Sun Harvesting Ecosystems,” and the human societies that depend on these ecosystems are defined as “Harvesting Sun Societies.”

An innovative culture system for tropical peatlands has been developed. AeroHydro culture is defined as plant cultivation at high ground water levels (GWLs) with supplements applied to the peatland surface. In peatland ecosystems, oxygen is usually the most serious limiting factor due to the very low levels of oxygen solubilization into water. Nutrient deficiencies subsequently develop because of both low nutrient adsorption due to the low oxygen level in the peat water and the low nutrient content of peat. However, trees that grow in native peatlands with high GWL have developed two strategies: forming aerial roots [for oxygen absorption] and lateral roots that grow into mounds that accumulate litter, called mound roots [for nutrient absorption]. Thus, AeroHydro culture mimics native peatland ecosystems. Both nutrients and oxygen are applied to the peatland surface as a combination of natural materials, organic matter, microorganisms, plant growth-promoting substances, and matrix materials.

AeroHydro culture is therefore an ideal culture system for tropical peatlands because it allows enough oxygen and nutrients to be applied from the peatland surface and enough water to be absorbed from the peatlands. Here, the most important key elements of AeroHydro culture and how to implement AeroHydro culture practices are discussed.

Restoration of tropical peatland ecosystem (including swamps and forests) is a sustainable activity to rebuild, manage, and recover various aspects of the ecosystem components. Indigenous forest tree species and their communities are important components for the sustainability of nutrient cycle assisted by the important role of forest microbes. They work in the forest floor underground, especially decomposers, saprophytic fungi, pathogenic fungi, ectomycorrhizal fungi, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria. They contribute to build the infrastructure of nutrient mineralization and carbon cycles in the forest floor. This paper described some ideas to develop a formulation of the role of mycorrhizal fungi in synergizing AeroHydro Culture and restoration activities in a tropical peatland ecosystem. Mycorrhizal fungi could synergize with other AeroHydro Culture components and also host trees to be introduced. The growth of new young roots around the plant is a trick to emerge exudate carbohydrates so that mycorrhizal fungi can be symbiotic. Thus, the mycorrhizal fungal propagules including spores could be germinated. The AeroHydro Culture formulation can be organic materials; plant growth substances, essential nutrients for root stimulation, mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), biochar and zeolite as porosity agents and microbial houses that synergize with roots can also increase the colonization of mycorrhizal fungi introduced in a natural forest and forest plantation. AeroHydro Culture is a cultivation technology integrated to stimulate functional aerial roots of the trees in peatland under high groundwater level (GWL). In stagnant conditions, AeroHydro Culture stimulates forest trees to produce new young roots, so that in limited conditions it could enhance tree productivity and microbial biodiversity below the ground. It is expected in the near future that the application of AeroHydro Culture can contribute and increase the productivity of peatland, which is currently undergoing field-scale experiments. Long-term monitoring is needed to identify the growth responses of local tree by AeroHydro Culture treatment, including mycorrhizal inoculation effect with organic nutrient addition. It suggests that AeroHydro Culture contributes to enhance productivity and sustain the tropical peatland ecosystem.

Recently, the development of science and technology for understanding the function and use of microbes in the field of agriculture is increasing rapidly. The ability of microbes to adapt and capture the signals of environmental conditions, followed by genetic changes and the function of cell metabolism can be used as a model in optimizing microbial utilization. The beneficial microbes living in the rhizosphere are usually grouped as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and degrading agents microbes of agricultural waste or commonly called decomposers. Both groups of microbes are very important to support plant growth, especially in unfavorable environmental conditions. PGPR are beneficial rhizobacteria that enhance plant growth as well as its productivity with various mechanisms. The interaction of PGPR with host plants is an intricate and interdependent relationship involving not only the two partners but other biotic and abiotic factors of the rhizosphere region. The ability of inoculated bacteria to survive, outcompete with the native microflora, and colonize in the rhizosphere is a critical step for a successful application, especially in extreme conditions. The concept of biological and biochemical processes that is mutually beneficial between bacteria and plants can be used to overcome the environmental problems that are not suitable for plant growth, and finally, plants can grow and produce yield optimally, for example, in the peatland ecosystem.

However, it has been difficult to inoculate PGPR and to maintain the root PGPR symbiotic system in field conditions, although sometimes it was a successful process in laboratory conditions. To avoid this inoculation deficit, an “Integrated PGPR Culture System” called AeroHydro Culture has been developed. In this chapter, the stabilization of PGPR function will focus on how to achieve supplying nutrients, oxygen, and beneficial substances based on “Land Surface Management” (AeroHydro Culture). The strategy to develop a liquid organic fertilizer containing selected multi-biocatalyst producing PGPR will also be discussed.

AeroHydro Culture mainly focuses on peatland restoration. However, as key technology of AeroHydro Culture is a method applying nutrient materials from “Land Surface,” AeroHydro Culture technology can apply to suboptimal land. Applying materials from “Land Surface” are composed of nutrients, organic matters, microorganisms, and porous materials such as biochar and zeolite. Biochar is one of the key materials in AeroHydro Culture technology because of its excellent functions on high water and nutrient holding capacity, matrix for microorganisms, and carbon sequestration. Suboptimal land including peat/wet land has enormous potential to be developed as a productive agricultural area. But its land quality is generally poor, so that it requires an improvement by applying soil amendment. Continuous application of soil amendment and inorganic fertilizer can cause soil organic C degradation, soil compaction, soil structure damage, and degraded productivity of the suboptimal land. Biochar can be used on suboptimal land as an eco-friendly soil amendment. Biochar plays a role in improving suboptimal land including the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. The effectivity of biochar in soil improvement depends on the biochar feedstock, its making process, the dosage, the application methods, the particle sizes, and the soil types. Improving the quality of suboptimal land affects the productivity of rice, maize, soybean, and also trees. Applying biochar is proven to increase the food crop and tree yields. Biochar can improve land productivity, sequestrate soil carbon, and mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Conserving carbon in mineral soil and suboptimal land such as peat/wetland has great impact not only on the improvement of soil qualities, but also on GHG emission mitigation.

Katingan Peat Conservation and Restoration Project, or in short, the Katingan-Mentaya Project (KMP) is a working concept of tropical peatland restoration on a large landscape scale run by a private sector in production forests, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. KMP is flanked by the Mentaya River and Katingan River watersheds where more than 43,000 people live in 34 villages along the river banks. The peat swamp forest had been logged for almost 40 years, leaving the degraded peat swamp forest (PSF) and deforested areas. Furthermore, the logging activities have changed the floral composition, vegetation structure, and tree species regeneration of the peat swamp forest. The footprint of logging activity is indicated by the ditch networks in the area. Instead of transporting timber, the ditches drain the peatland water, particularly in the dry season. The drainage has changed the hydrological regime within the KMP area, especially in the deforested areas. These areas, which typically are covered by ferns and grasses, are very prone to fire during the dry season due to the water table depth that becomes relatively low. Given those situations, KMP has implemented the landscape-scale active restoration program since 2013 not only to repair the degraded PSF but also to give benefit to the local stakeholders. The restoration management intervention as part of the nature-based solution is scheduled for completion in 60 years (2013–2073), following the ecosystem restoration concession granted by the Government of Indonesia, including the gradual revegetation in deforested areas, assisted natural regeneration, natural regeneration, rewetting, community-based fire prevention, forest protection, peatland agroecological farmer school, and collaborative management at specific areas inside and outside the concession area. During the restoration program implementation, we have learned that the social component (local stakeholders) and land-use change outside the KMP area shape the restoration activities time by time, driving the KMP management to be adaptive and innovative.

This chapter identifies the key paludiculture (swamp cultivation) plant species from various commodity categories, including food (fruit, nuts, vegetables, beverages, spices, oils, and fats), medicines, other non-timber forest products (utensils, dyes, weaving, latex, resins, and so on), as well as a range of wood products such as species producing timber and pulp. 512 useful peat swamp plant species are recognized, including 81 species with a major economic use and 379 non-timber forest product species, representing a cornucopia of paludiculture options. However, although 380,000 ha of degraded peatland has been rewetted by mid-2018, less than 2000 ha has been converted for true paludiculture, i.e. with full rewetting and using peat swamp adapted species for economic benefit. While a range of technical challenges exist, the main reasons for not carrying out true paludiculture are a lack of examples to follow and a lack of information about paludiculture species (their performance, markets, growth, and so on).

Tropical peatlands are key ecosystem that demonstrate their effectiveness in carbon storage and sink and the high potential for mitigating climate change. They store about 30–40% of global soil carbon deposits but occupy only 3% of the world’s land surface. However, tropical peatlands are among the most vulnerable ecosystem that degrade rapidly due to the combined pressures of an advancing agricultural and economic activities, growing human populations, infrastructure development, as well as climate change and pollution. Clearing, drainage, and burning of peatlands not only produce greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission and deadly toxic haze, but also endanger the critical ecological services the ecosystem could provide. Although peatlands are found in many countries, tropical peatlands remain among the least understood and monitored of the world’s ecosystems. Addressing the sources of GHGs emission and understanding methodological framework for estimating the emission (measurement, reporting, and verification or MRV) for tropical peatlands are key steps to develop strategies to mitigate the impacts as well as improve understanding of sustainable management of tropical peatlands to cope with climate change.

The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) was established in 2004 and is the premier global mechanism to facilitate sustainable production and use of palm oil. The RSPO has developed a set of environmental and social criteria which companies must comply with in order to produce Certified Sustainable Palm Oil (CSPO). The RSPO has more than 4000 members worldwide who represent all links along the palm oil supply chain. They have committed to produce, source and/or use sustainable palm oil certified by the RSPO. Oil palm is grown in the tropical region around the world with the majority in Southeast Asia but is expanding in Africa and Latin America. Approximately three million hectares (ha) (14%) out of a total of about 21.4 million ha (FAOSTAT 2017 FAOSTAT online database. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data) of oil palm is cultivated on tropical peatlands—primarily in Indonesia and Malaysia. Assessments undertaken by RSPO have demonstrated that use of best management practices (BMPs), especially for water management, pest and diseases and fire prevention, is critical for responsible cultivation of oil palm. However, in the long term, cultivation on peatlands can lead to significant subsidence and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Since the beginning of its certification scheme in 2005, RSPO has discouraged extensive planting on peat and since 2018 has required a total halt in new plantations on peatlands by members, globally. RSPO and its members are actively supporting peatland conservation and rehabilitation as well as ensuring any existing plantations on peatlands are managed responsibly.

Key for peatland management is a deep understanding of the hydrological processes and phenomena in peatland such as water flow in the biosphere, leaf, stem, and root. Relationships between groundwater level (GWL), rainfall, and evapotranspiration are also the key elements. Soil moisture near the peatland surface is clearly affected by the vegetation types in peatland. An important indicator of peatland hydrology, i.e. hydraulic conductivity, is theoretically explained in this paper, including its behavior.

Horizontal groundwater flow in a saturated peat layer is caused by horizontal difference of water potential, for which the understanding of groundwater flow, speed, and direction were measured. The canal construction in peatland is the most typical disturbance in a peatland ecosystem. The groundwater flow near the canal in the tropical peatland of Central Kalimantan suggested the presence of high permeable layers in the peat soil near the weir.

Indonesia has the largest tropical peatland globally. This unique but fragile ecosystem provides a range of ecosystem services such as biodiversity conservation, carbon storage, hydrological as well as social-economic benefits, and so forth. Despite these values and services, around 50% of the country’s peatland experienced degradation due to several factors, namely logging, land use conversion, drainage, and recurrent fires. Peatland degradation has brought negative consequences for the economy, society, and environment, namely climate change resulted from CO₂ emissions.

One major element of peat swamp ecosystem is hydrology, which together with vegetation and peat substrate creates a natural and balanced peat ecosystem. Hydrological balance plays a key role to sustain peatland ecosystem as ninety percent of peatland comprises water. Removal of peatland vegetation cover and construction of artificial drainage canals lead to the disturbance of hydrological balance, which in turn propagates negative impacts to the ecosystem in the form of over-drainage resulting in peat subsidence due to peat oxidation, consolidation, and compaction.

This chapter aims at outlining the factors of peatland hydrological disturbances and management strategy therefore, which is addressed via estimation of the impacts by employing peatland hydrological restoration applied in Indonesia. The chapter ends with investigative case study of canal blocking impacts on hydrological dynamics in Central Kalimantan.

Peatlands in Central Kalimantan are degraded due to the recurring fires occurring since decades ago. After the catastrophic fire in 2015, there has been an increase in peatland restoration activity in Indonesia. Hydrological restoration, e.g. canal blocking, has been developed throughout Central Kalimantan. We focused our study on the Rehabilitation of Peatland (RePeat) area of the Forest with Specific Purposes, Tumbang Nusa in Central Kalimantan. Most of the area (about 2500 ha) of Tumbang Nusa Peat Swamp Forest was burnt in 2015. At the end of 2015, the rehabilitation of the burnt forest by planting Shorea balangeran—a native peatland tree species—started. Shorea balangeran is a timber species, which produces a good quality of wood. Later in 2017, the canal was blocked through the development of canal blocking with a spillway system. Tree growth and water level were observed manually and regularly every month. Shorea balangeran grew well on the rewetted peatlands and under the open canopy. However, outside the forest area, the peatland restoration needs to consider the socio-economic aspect of the community living in the surrounding area. In addition to land–tree species matching, the livelihood of the community living in the area must also be taken into account to ensure the success of peatland restoration. Ecosystem services that may be provided through the rewetted and revegetated peat forest can only benefit the people after some time when the restored area is really established.

Hydrological system strongly influences the sustainability of peatlands. The drainage system in peatlands that is not designed appropriately will result in the drop of groundwater level (GWL), and thus, peat will be dried and become susceptible to fire. Efforts to restore peatlands have been carried out, one of which is peat rewetting through canal blocking. This study assessed the non-burnt and burnt peatland areas as well as an area with canal blocking to determine the effect of fire and canal blocking on the GWL for the foregoing variables. In each area, dipwells were established at a distance of 1 m (representing the canal water level), 10, 50, 100, 250, and 350 m from the canal. The study clearly showed a significant correlation between the average GWL and fire, and canal blocking as well as the distance from the canal. Fire resulted to an increase of the average GWL, from 61 cm to 50 cm below the ground. There were significant impacts on land use relevant to the average GWL. Canal blocking demonstrated its role in increasing GWL on drained peat areas by mimicking the average GWL on the reference site. This study concluded that constructing more canal blockings and planting more fire-resistant plants are critical to reduce the fire risks.

Peatland has long served the panglong (timber) businesses as well as the local people. In the nineteenth century, people could clear the land as long as they paid the sultan or community chief. The Sultan in Deli gave empty land concessions to companies (tanah kosong) on the condition that the company kept the land for swidden agriculture for local people. The Agrarian Law in 1870 enabled the colonial government to grant land concessions to companies for woeste grond (waste land), over which the people had no rights. The concept of “waste land” was different from “empty land” which was a part of the customary land tenure system. After the independence, the Basic Agrarian Act and the Basic Forestry Act recognized the customary communal right of disposition (hak ulayat) and the right to clear land; however, these rights were strictly interpreted, making it challenging to implement them. The Basic Forestry Act stipulated the state forest area (kawasan hutan) as the forest over which the people had no rights other than hak ulayat. The Forestry Act in 1999 added that people were prohibited from cultivating and/or making use of and/or occupying the state forest area illegally. According to our survey at a village in the peatland area, almost all land was state forest area, in which there were a lot of production forests over which companies had been granted concessions. On the other hand, local people had settled there since the 1930s and acquired land through inheritance, buying, and clearing. Many of them have letters of certificate for this land. Today the government tends not to recognize such letters issued for state forest areas. These conditions have given rise to the insecurity of land rights in the peatlands. While the government hopes that agrarian reform would resolve land tenure issues through social forest programs, local people have yet to see benefits from these programs.

In Malaysia, peatland is the most widespread type of wetland found in ten states which are Johor, Kelantan, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak, Putrajaya, Sabah, Sarawak, Selangor, and Terengganu. It covers about 2.6 million hectares (ha) which is approximately 30% of the country’s earth surface (Standard Operating Procedure to Implement Peatland Fire Prevention Programme to Mitigate Haze). The largest peatland area is in Sarawak, which is more than 1.6 million ha. Approximately, 30% of the total peatland area in Malaysia is found in the forest reserves (Forested areas that are gazetted as Permanent Reserved Forest are being managed sustainably for environment and socio-economic purposes), with the remaining areas converted for other uses while some are still designated as the state forest land. Peatland management is crucial not only to ensure sustainable use of the resources and protection of endangered species, but also to maintain environmental stability and services. Local community involvement is often critical to the effective conservation, rehabilitation, and sustainable use of peatlands. Degradation of peatlands can lead to the loss of important livelihood options and negatively impact community welfare. The peatland conservation and rehabilitation efforts require local communities’ involvement, particularly those who live adjacent to the area. Among the established peatland rehabilitation activities involving local communities are the establishment of community nurseries, tree planting, rewetting (water management), fire monitoring and patrolling programme, alternative livelihood options, and more. The implementation of these activities promoted a “sense of belonging” among the communities and ensured the sustainability of conservation efforts in the long run. The Global Environment Centre has established such programme called Friends of Peat Swamp Forest designed to conserve and protect the degraded peatland areas. It was introduced to the communities who are aware of the degradation issues of peatland in Selangor and Pahang states to support the protection and utilization of peatlands in a sustainable manner and enhance the awareness among society and students about the importance of peatlands and the services it provides to the local communities.

JICA Partnership Project (JPP) “Restoration of Peatland Ecology and Livelihood Improvement through Rewetting and Revegetation toward the Prevention of Peat Fires” has been conducted in Tanjung Leban village, Riau province, Indonesia since 2017. Peatland restoration was attempted by encouraging villagers to manage water and ecosystem through weir construction and revegetation, respectively. The villagers aim for the coexistence of environmental restoration and livelihood improvement by planting native species suitable for peatland along with cash crop cultivation.

Peatland is the most extensive wetland ecosystem in Malaysia covering approximately 2.5 million ha or 7.5% of total land area of the country (Department of Environment (DOE), Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) in implementing peat fire prevention program to combat haze in Malaysia, 2019; DOE, Draft Master Plan for Management of Fire Prone Peatlands in Malaysia 2021–2030, 2019). This ecosystem is of critical value for conservation of biodiversity, regulation of climate change and water resources, and support for socio-economy of the population. The management of this unique wetland type has been a challenge due to its complex nature and the fact that it is prone to fire and subsidence when over-drained. The majority of peatland is managed for forestry and agriculture purposes. There is a specific National Action Plan for Peatlands (NAPP) developed and endorsed by the Malaysian Cabinet in 2011 for its implementation till 2020. The NAPP has been guided by the regional ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (AATHP) which Malaysia signed in 2002 and ratified in 2003 and the associated ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (APMS) 2006–2020. Malaysia has been actively involved and participated in negotiations and discussions within the national, regional and international platforms in tackling peatland and smoke haze related issues and challenges. Malaysia has also been responsive on the internal and external transboundary haze matters and taking action to establish and implement a national programme on peatland fire prevention and management since 2009. The national programme has been focusing to provide financial and technical support to seven peatland fire prone states within the country. Rehabilitation of degraded peatland area has been included as one of key indicators for the National Policy on Biological Diversity 2016–2025. A National Peatland Working Committee (NPWC) and a National Peatland Steering Committee (NPSC) have been established to coordinate and facilitate the stakeholders’ efforts in sustainably managing the peatland ecosystems in the country.

Peatland in Thailand covers about 60,331 ha of land, most of which is concentrated along the eastern shoreline of the peninsula. About 69% thereof is found to stretch across the Narathiwat Province, located near the Malaysian border. The majority of this peat soil contains a large quantity of woody materials of relatively high fiber content (fibric soil material). Generally, the thickness of the peat layer seldom exceeds 3 m and is underlain mostly by muddy clay layer rich with pyrite. The organic soil materials have low bulk density, very high organic carbon, wide carbon and nitrogen ratio, extremely high acid, high cation exchange capacity but very low exchangeable bases and trace elements such as copper, zinc, and manganese. According to the United States Department of Agriculture Soil Taxonomy, most of them are placed under Typic Haplofibrists, Fluvaquentic Haplofibrists, Terric Haplofibrists, and Terric Sulfibemists. During the late 1960s, parts of these soils were utilized to meet the demand on land for agriculture, especially for the production of paddy rice, vegetables, and oil palm. The common practices included establishment of drainage system, forest burning, land clearing, construction of infrastructures, and cultivation. However, those agricultural developments appear to be unsuccessful and unsustainable in most cases despite having involved the governmental intervention. In light of that, the national management strategy was developed in Narathiwat Province where most swamps have been used. Under the supervision of the Pikun Thong Royal Development Study Centre as initiated by His Majesty, the Late King Rama IX, the land use zonation was established comprising three basic zones, namely development zone, conservation zone, and preservation zone. Each zone has been assigned to specific task force in which the concerned government agencies work together by the means of integration approach. Furthermore, researches on various aspects of peatland management especially soil characteristics, peatland crops and soil management, mechanization, drainage control, and water management are still needed.

Tropical peatland in Indonesia is an important ecosystem that provides considerable benefits to the world. Peatlands have been occupied since the empire era or earlier; thus, the impacts of people’s activities on peatlands cannot be belittled. This paper aims to discuss the lessons learned from some plots of peatland restoration. From 2017 to 2019, Deputy of Research and Development of BRG RI (Peatland Restoration Agency of the Republic of Indonesia) facilitated 112 action research projects in six out of seven prioritized provinces in Indonesia. The provinces are Riau, Jambi, South Sumatra, West Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, and South Kalimantan. Action research plots comprise strategies of peatland restoration (rewetting, revegetation, and revitalization, and the integration of the three measures). From the 112 action research projects, we selected and observed potential plots as well as local practices (the approaches that had existed before BRG RI intervened). It is elicited for peatland restoration to encourage economic development without sacrificing the priceless peat ecosystem and its services for human being and well-being, and this requires upscaling the economic benefits from the peatland restoration. To achieve that, peatland restoration requires stakeholders’ participation in the entire peatland hydrological unit without which a landscape approach toward peat hydrological unit would be hard to implement.

Peatland area in Vietnam is very small compared to that in other countries in Southeast Asia such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. After years of exploitation, most of the peatland areas in Vietnam became negligible except in a few locations in the Mekong River Delta (MRD).

Peatlands in the MRD were formed mainly after the middle Holocene transgression period until hundred years ago. The typical types included: ancient coastal marsh peat mixed swampy peat and modern coastal swamp peat. Most of the peatlands are found in ancient swamps and ancient abandoned channel courses scattered across the delta.

Many peatland areas in the MRD have been lost, others severely degraded due to inappropriate management practices for decades. They include (1) uncoordinated sectoral approach leading to overlapping management, (2) limited capacity for peatland management, (3) lack of systematic researches on peatlands, and (4) demand for land for food production of poor people living in and around peatland areas. Inappropriate management and lack of knowledge about peatland resources have led to activities that caused loss of peatland resources, including conversion to agricultural land, drainage, mining for organic fertilizer production, fuel, among others.

Few small peatland areas scattering in the Long Xuyen Quadrangle are being exploited for fertilizer production, although the provincial government has decided to stop exploitation in new areas.

Inappropriate hydrological management in U Minh peatlands has resulted in quite serious forest fires and peat fires in previous years, especially forest fires in 2002. Forest fires in peatlands seriously damage not only peat-swamp forest ecosystems but also habitats and animals in both national parks. Integrated water and fire management applied effectively have ceased forest fires in U Minh Thuong National Park since 2009. Meanwhile, U Minh Ha National Park still faces the risks of forest fires and peatland oxidation due to adequate method of water retention in the dry season.

Nature conservation in the U Minh peat-swamp has faced a conflict of interest with local communities who have lived in the peatland area for a long time. The demand for agricultural production land and peatland resources as important sources of their livelihoods has been affected after nature reserves establishment.

The application of integrated fire and water management, local community-based natural resource management, and afforestation resulted in positive effects on the rehabilitation of U Minh peatland ecosystems and on the socio-economic development for the local community in recent years.