Unconventional Water Resources and Agriculture in Egypt

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. The Evolution of Drainage Water in Egypt

   Dia El Din Ahmed Hussein El-Quosy

   Abstract

   When floodwater comes only once a year to flush the soil and leach the accumulated salts thoroughly, there was no need for any drainage projects. The irrigation in Egypt was practiced only on the scale of scattered basins spreading from south to north and from the river floodplain eastward and westward.

   When perennial irrigation was implemented, drainage became necessary. The salts that accumulated in the soil profile had to be leached either intermittently (with each irrigation gift) or seasonally (between summer and winter crops) for suitable salinity levels for plant growth. In the meantime, artificial drainage was required especially when the natural drainage characteristics of the soil were not sufficient in order to keep the soil profile in the root zone well aerated and unsaturated.

3. Management of the Integration Between Irrigation and Drainage Water in the Nile Delta

   Waleed H. Abou El Hassan, Ayman Allam

   Abstract

   Strategies for improving the performance of irrigation and drainage in the Nile delta are as numerous as there are different integration systems between irrigation and drainage systems. Historically, these integration systems aimed to increase the efficiency of irrigation water use through improving irrigation systems as well as drainage systems. A negative impact was observed through continuous application of irrigation water to meet the crop water requirements within free crop pattern system. Therefore, a need for adaptive control of irrigation application systems was essentially required. Additionally, mitigation of the negative impact of drainage system through implementation of subsurface drainage for preventing higher soil salinity was urgently required. Recently, water conservation techniques through irrigation improvement projects (IIPs) were also implemented in order to mitigate the shortage of water resources. Despite of all the efforts done, there are still further needs to implement future firm strategies for improving the performance of irrigation and drain age in the Nile Delta.

4. The Assessment of Egypt’s Subsurface Drainage System

   Gehan A. H. Sallam

   Abstract

   Drainage is the removal of excess water and salt from the soil at a rate which will maintain soil structure and aeration in order to permit normal plant growth. Several studies have indicated that water-logging and salinity problems arise as a result of poor water management and inadequate water table control in irrigated agriculture. At the turn of the nineteenth century, perennial irrigation was introduced in the Nile River Delta and Valley of Egypt. The natural drainage in many areas is not enough to account for the excess irrigation water. This has led to a raise in the groundwater table, and increases problems of water-logging and salinity. These problems have serious effects on crop production in arid and semi-arid regions. Many countries which are traditionally famous with their irrigated agriculture, like in Egypt, have realized that the absence of adequate drainage is the reason for the decline in crop production. Therefore, they have undertaken large-scale projects to install drains to conserve the productivity of the agricultural areas. There are three types of drains for removing excess water. These include open drains, subsurface drains, and tube well drains. Each type has advantages and disadvantages. In Egypt, subsurface drains are preferred because of their long effective lifetime ‘when adequately designed and properly installed’, the gain of land, and the comparatively low maintenance cost. A detailed discussion of subsurface drainage techniques in Egypt is provided in this chapter.

5. Environmental Impact Assessment of Subsurface Drainage Projects

   Ismail Abd-Elaty, Abdelazim M. Negm, Gehan A. H. Sallam

   Abstract

   Nowadays, Egypt is entering a new phase in which human food needs must harmonize with environmental and sustainable principles. Drainage impacts on the environment have given rise to a lot of concern, so in the future the design and operation of drainage systems should satisfy both agricultural and environmental objectives. Therefore, this study was developed to perform environmental impact assessment (EIA) for the subsurface drainage projects. The study was carried out on Mashtul Pilot Area (MPA) in Egypt as a real case study and the experimental fieldwork. The study was conducted in two main steps: The first one is the experimental fieldwork that was formulated to obtain measured data necessary to evaluate and assess the impact of subsurface drainage projects in the main categories of the environmental issues. The second step is developing an EIA matrix for subsurface drainage projects to qualify and quantify the baseline of environmental setting accompanied with their potential impacts. Expertise advice and help were used to assess these indices based on the degree of each impact and distributed among environmental issues to quantify the overall impacts. It could be concluded that subsurface drainage projects have direct and indirect impacts. These impacts could be positive or negative. The results of the EIA matrix application for subsurface drainage projects according to the expert’s evaluation and expertise prevailed that the environmental impact assessment of subsurface drainage projects according to the environmentally feasible existing situation and substantial benefits is very likely to affect positively 85.50%, zero 6.5%, and negatively 5%. These values indicate that subsurface drainage projects have significant positive impacts on irrigation and drainage environment.

6. New Design Criteria for Subsurface Drainage System Considering Heat Flow Within Soil

   Mahmoud A. M. Abdelrahman

   Abstract

   Land drainage is defined as the removal of excess surface and subsurface water from the soil. The drainage design criteria are classified into agricultural, technical, environmental, and economic design criteria. Traditional drainage design formulae, though easy to implement, do not take into account the various soil properties, heat flow within porous media (soil), and its impact on evaporation rate, root water uptake, and design process. Therefore, the effect of the evaporation and root water uptake on the water table drawdown and consequently on the lateral drain spacing should be considered. Finite element models utilized to simulate water and heat flow in variably saturated soil under unsteady-state condition. The finite element models were linked together with coupling terms to be exploited as one model.

   Four case studies were applied on clay, clay loam, sandy clay loam, and loamy sand soils cultivated with maize crop. The results of the applied case studies demonstrated that considering evaporation and root water uptake in the design process results in wider lateral drain spacing which leads to a more economical drainage system. It was proven that the percentage increase in lateral drain spacing varies between 22.4 and 50% regarding to soil type.

7. Spatiotemporal Hydrochemical Evaluation and Quality Assessment of Drainage Water Compared to Canal Surface Water in the Middle Nile Delta, Egypt

   Zenhom El-Said Salem, Abdelaziz ElNahrawy, Mohamed Ghobara

   Abstract

   The aim of the present chapter is to assess the spatiotemporal variability in the hydrochemistry of the main surface water streams (drains and canals) in the middle Nile Delta and their suitability for drinking, irrigation, and fish farming usage based on the hydrochemical data. To perform this target, physicochemical parameters were measured during winter and summer seasons (2016) in water samples collected from two main irrigation canals (Mit-yazed canal, four stations, and Qudaba canal, five stations) and two main drains (Janag drain, four stations, and El-Gharbia main drain, five stations). These stations were arranged from south to north along the flow system of each stream. The field-measured salinity and the analyzed major ions showed an obvious increase along the flow path from south to north. Trace element spatial distribution showed different trends depending on the source of water, the intersection of the studied stream with another, the local urban conditions, as well as the effect of the seawater invasion. The sample hydrochemical types and the cluster analysis reveal an obvious temporal difference between winter and summer seasons for each water body. The water suitability for different uses is better in summer than in winter due to the low water input to the streams during winter. The water of the irrigation canals was suitable for drinking, irrigation, and fish farming either in winter or in summer. Compared to water quality in irrigation canals, drains’ water quality is of medium quality according to IWQ index (except sample 5 of El-Gharbia main drain which is of low quality) and plotted in the unsuitable and high-salinity fields in Wilcox and USSL classification diagrams, respectively. P, N, Mn, Zn, and Fe were above the permissible limits in drain water for fish farm irrigation.

8. Review of Technologies and Practices for Improving Agricultural Drainage Water Quality in Egypt

   Mohamed Elshemy

   Abstract

   Water quality plays an important role in water resources management plans, particularly for arid and semiarid regions, where water scarcity has become a real issue. Agricultural drainage water can be reused separately/or in conjunction with fresh water. However, the water quality status of drainage water is concern in reuse implementation strategies. Moreover, the water quality degradation of natural water body that receives the drainage water can be effected. Thus, implementation of water quality treatment practices and technologies is essential. In this chapter, available drainage water treatment practices and technologies, such as controlled drainage, wetlands, bioreactors, and two-stage open ditch, will be discussed in detail. The pilot studies of implementing drainage water treatment systems in Egypt were reviewed and will be described in this chapter. It is recommended to experiment with some low-cost applicable technologies, such as in-stream control structures and treatment systems, and to implement constructed wetland treatment systems on major Egyptian drains.

9. Constructed Wetlands: The Green Technology for Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in Agriculture

   Sohair I. Abou-Elela

   Abstract

   In Egypt, water sector suffers from scarcity and deterioration of water quality due to the disposal of untreated or partially treated municipal wastewater especially in rural areas. This problem makes developing new, appropriate, and affordable methods for municipal wastewater treatment of great concern. Among these methods are the constructed wetlands (CWLs). The technology consists mainly of vegetation, substrates, soils, microorganisms, and water. It utilizes complex processes involving physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms to remove various contaminants. The two major types of CWLs in use are, namely, free water surface (FWS) wetland and subsurface flow (SSF) wetland. The SSF is further classified according to the flow direction to horizontal or vertical. Also, hybrid system is used for better treatment performance and nitrogen removal. CWLs are characterized by easy operation, low capital costs and maintenance, robust process able to withstand a wide range of operating conditions, and a good landscape. This chapter highlighted and portrayed the CWL technology, understanding the different types, designs, and factors affecting their performance. Also, the mechanisms of removal of organic matters, total suspended solids, nutrients, heavy metals, and pathogens are portrayed and assessed. Factors affecting the performance of the different types of CWLs such as hydraulic loading rate (HLR), hydraulic retention time (HRT), and types of vegetation are also elaborated. The potential of using CWLs in Egypt for wastewater reuse according to the Egyptian code of standards for wastewater reuse and some successful case studied using CWLs for wastewater and drainage remediation are included.

10. Wastewater Disinfection Using Artificial Ultraviolet Rays Technology

    Abeer EL Shahawy, Sahar El-Shatoury, Salah Bayomi, Diaa El-Monayeri

    Abstract

    Despite technological advances in water and wastewater treatments, contaminated water is still an important vehicle of transmission for enteric pathogens of humans and animals. Untreated waters are normally discharged into surface waters. Proper disinfection treatment is extremely vital for reducing a large number of microorganisms present in wastewater. With proper disinfection, microorganism level in wastewater can be reduced to a safe level, allowing for wastewater to be reused in applications such as agricultural and urban irrigation without compromising on human health. Therefore, this study was developed to investigate the UV (ultraviolet) disinfection performance toward different microbial pathogens and evaluate the effectiveness of UV reactor in wastewater disinfection in Egypt. Low-intensity UV light was tested with different wastewater qualities to determine the variability of factors governing UV disinfection process in relation to bacterial types; also, compare the UV sensitivity of different microbial pathogens and fecal indicators to achieve the safe dose for wastewater disinfection, which could prevent the extent of (dark photo) repair in fecal indicators and pathogens after UV exposure; and investigate the suitable water characteristics for UV application to meet the allowable limits. It could be concluded that principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that each bacterial group has specific sensitivity and its inactivation is governed by different water characteristics in the UV reactor. VSS, TSS, and TDS of the wastewater were found to have the greatest effect on UV disinfection efficiency. UV dose was 5,305.2 mw/cm² s. Streptococci showed no repair for both dark and light, but fecal coliform and Vibrio cholerae showed little repair for dark and light. Salmonella and Shigella displayed more increase in dark and light than control samples. Photoreactivation was higher than dark repair. In relation to Salmonella and Shigella, a significant increase in the bacterial count in light repair is observed, that every cell (colony-forming unit) remained after UV exposure multiplied to 122 cfu in light repair.

11. Microbial Hazards in Treated Wastewater: Challenges and Opportunities for Their Reusing in Egypt

    Samir A. Mahgoub

    Abstract

    The scientific and managerial challenges around the multiple processes, i.e., reclaimed wastewater, green energy, etc., are so similar in many countries. Many countries, including Egypt, countenance great challenges consequent the limited water and energy resources. These limitations have boosted the benefit in finding alternative water and renewable energy origins to output biofuels on one side and to reuse wastewater in agriculture. Conventional aerobic wastewater treatment plants require intensive oxygenation; a large numeral of chemicals and the implementation and maintenance are energy demanding. By using green technologies, i.e., integrating developed oxidation processes and microalgae-based systems, removal of biological pathogens and nutrients, i.e., ammonium and phosphate, can be recovered by microbial assimilation and operational cost of oxygenation avoided by in situ production via photosynthesis. Thus, the microalgae biomass should be harvested and utilized as the substrate for anaerobic digestion. Integration wastewater treatment, algal biomass production, and valorization via anaerobic digestion have the potential to raise the economic feasibility of providing the new provenance of energy and amendment of water quality in water bodies. This chapter discusses the wastewater treatment process challenges and opportunities for reusing unconventional water.

12. Cloud-Based Non-conventional Land and Water Resources for Sustainable Development in Sinai Peninsula, Egypt

    El-Sayed Ewis Omran

    Abstract

    Egypt will face water scarcity, a problem that can be partially alleviated using the non-conventional water resources. With limited freshwater, tapping into non-conventional land and water resources has become a necessity for the Sinai. First, this chapter presents the state of the art of non-conventional water resource management techniques, which includes drainage water and wastewater reuse, desalination of brackish and saline water, fossil or Paleolakes water, and water harvesting. The combined effects of increasing demand for water for irrigation and the difficulties facing the disposal of waste sewage and agricultural drainage water suggest that technological innovation and adaptation are relevant for effective and environmentally sustainable reuse. Therefore, innovations are important to increase the efficiency of water use. Satellite remote sensing approaches, in conjunction with geographic information systems (GIS) have been widely used and have been recognized as an effective and powerful tool in monitoring and assessment of non-conventional water resources. Second, this chapter evaluates the status of non-conventional soil resources. The Sinai’s soils are classified into different classes including saline soil, gypsiferous soil, sandy soil, steep slope soil, skeletal soil, and shallow soil. If these soils are used for agricultural purpose, then it may cause some severe effects on the ecology and environment. Upon proper soil management and amendments with specific attention, they can be converted for cultivation soils. Finally, this chapter also proposes a smart-based land and water resources system based on the key technologies: Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing, and smart sensors. Environmental sensors have been used in applications as per the need to build smart water resources management. Combining the Cloud, IoT, and sensors is vital, so that the sensing data can be stored or processed. The proposed system consists of the sensor layer, the transmission layer, the Cloud services layer, and the application layer. The system is a collection of platforms and infrastructures on which data is stored and processed, allowing farmers to retrieve and upload their data for a specific application, at any location with Internet access. Finally, advantages and the possible limitations of the proposed system are discussed.

13. Innovative Aerobic Technology for Wastewater Treatment for Reuse in Agriculture

    Hossam Abdelsalam Elsayed, Ahmed Tawfik

    Abstract

    The aim of the present study was the treatment of industrial starch wastewater to be used for irrigation using a technology that is robust and very simple to operate with minimum energy consumption. In order to achieve this important objective, the Innovative Aerobic Technology for wastewater Treatment scheme was investigated. The Innovative Aerobic Technology consisted of a down-flow hanging sponge (DHS) reactor. The Innovative Aerobic Technology system was fed continuously with the Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR) effluent. The DHS reactor was operated at different hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 19.2 h (Run 1), 12.8 h (Run 2), and 6.4 h (Run 3). The average removal values of total chemical oxygen demand (COD_t), soluble chemical oxygen demand (COD_s), biological oxygen demand (BOD₅), total suspended solids (TSS), and total nitrogen (TN) were 57.1%, 63.0%,49.8%, 46.6%, and 68.1%, respectively, for Run 1, 59.0%,47.6%, 46.3%, 55.1%, and 59.7%, respectively, for Run 2, and 53.0%, 50.0%, 58.0%, 31.9%, and 74.5%, respectively, for Run 3. The available data proved that the DHS reactor can deal with higher organic loads. The performance of the DHS reactor was very suitable for carbonaceous organic matter and nitrogen removal and even for wastewater with a high organic loading rate (OLR) of 41.5 kg COD/m³d.

14. Reuse of Fish Farm Drainage Water in Irrigation

    R. E. Abdelraouf

    Abstract

    Egypt is challenged by a shortage of water resources. Egypt will suffer from a severe water shortage especially after building El-NAHDA Dam in Ethiopia. To alleviate the strain on water and energy resources, innovative and sustainable strategies are required, such as seeking new sources of water. There are many new sources of water, which have not been tapped into. One of these sources is drainage water from fish farms. Three field experiments were carried out in research farms of the National Research Center in the Nubaria region to cultivating crops using these methods combined with new bio-fertilizing resources. The results indicate the benefits of fish water effluent as a suitable irrigator for potato, soybean, and onion crops. Furthermore, this application did not require additional fertilizers and thus reduced the fertilizer costs. The experimental results indicated that the best type of irrigation system for applying fish farm drainage water to fields was the sprinkler irrigation system.

15. Sustainable Water Treatment Methods to Be Used in Urban Communities

    Amal Abdou, Iman Gawad, Zeina ElZein

    Abstract

    The increasing population and rapid urbanization rates lead to increasing demands on water resources. In an arid country such as Egypt, cities are facing problems of water scarcity and untreated wastewater. Communities consume large amounts of water, leading to higher water demands and an increased wastewater production. Many developing countries can’t afford the required infrastructure to cope with the rising demand on water supply and wastewater treatment, leading to a water challenge. The water challenge is studied by researchers in agricultural, infrastructures, and other related fields, while the role of the urban planner/designer is usually not included, though the integration of water management techniques in urban design can provide valuable benefits on water resources, in addition to positive impacts on the social, environmental, and economic aspects of the community and the health of its inhabitants. This chapter introduces the concept of integration of water management in the urban design of communities, from an urban design point of view, providing the link between water management and community design. The chapter focuses on methods that can be applied in Egypt. Examples of communities in similar climatic conditions are examined to provide an understanding of the potential of integration of water management techniques in new urban communities in Egypt.

16. Reuse of Treated Wastewater in Egypt: Challenges and Opportunities

    Tamer A. Elbana, Noura Bakr, Maha Elbana

    Abstract

    Limited water resources in Egypt is the main factor driving the exploration of unconventional sources that can fulfill the water demands of the increasing population. Applying treated wastewater (TWW) to agriculture is a reliable, effective method of reducing the gap between current water demand and supply. Besides saving freshwater resources, long-term reuse of TWW can enhance the physiochemical properties of light-textured soil.

    Pathogens and toxic chemical bioaccumulation are the main drawbacks of wastewater reuse in agriculture. Irrigation of non-edible crops with TWW is recommended under controlled management that complies with appropriate water quality standards. Monitoring the impact of reusing TWW will reduce health risks and environmental hazards. While Egypt’s total water supply for 2015 was 76.4 × 10⁹ m³, the total refined (drinking/health use) water was 8.9 × 10⁹ m³, which generated wastewater of around 5 × 10⁹ m³. The primary, secondary, and tertiary treatments provided total TWW of 3.7 × 10⁹ m³, with respective percentages of 16.8, 81.4, and 1.8%.

    Several organizations in Egypt are tasked with wastewater management and reuse. In addition to the Egyptian laws, legislation, and regulations enacted to protect the environment and water resources from pollution, the Egyptian Code for reusing TWW classifies wastewater into four grades (A, B, C, and D) depending on the level of treatment. There are four key challenges to reusing TWW: social (public acceptance of wastewater reuse), management (crop selection, irrigation, and soil-based practices), human health risk, and environmental threats. There are significant opportunities to maximize the benefits of TWW reuse in Egypt as less than 75% of collected wastewater is currently being treated. Finally, reusing TWW in agriculture could be the most reliable solution to overcome water scarcity and help to sustain water resources in Egypt.

17. Desalination and Greenhouses

    Hassan El-Banna S. Fath

    Abstract

    Egypt’s hot climate, high solar radiation, and lack of irrigating water are limiting factors for successful farmland, and makes growing crops an expensive and resource-intensive endeavor. In addition, Egypt is composed of 95% desert land which makes growing plants in open fields difficult due to infertile soil, low average rainfall, and lack of freshwater for irrigation purposes. These difficulties can be overcome by using Greenhouses (GHs) for agricultural purposes which can provide the proper environment for plants growth in all seasons.

    GHs are a type of indoor facility which is enclosed by transparent covers and have the ability to control internal climatic conditions and could potentially reduce the amount of water required for irrigation purposes in agricultural production. In addition, the use of GHs allows the production of high quantity and quality crops throughout the year. In cold climate regions, GHs have been introduced to collect (trap) solar energy and heat the GHs in order to maximize crops productivity. However, in arid areas with high atmospheric temperatures and high solar intensity, this can be a burden on plants growth and reducing the temperature inside the GHs would be essential for successful plants growth.

    On the other hand, desalination has been introduced as an alternative nonconventional water resource for regions of limited freshwater resources. Extensive desalination technologies have been launched in the Middle East and North African (MENA) region since the 1970s. It is sometimes less expensive to desalinate saline water than to transport treated water from remote freshwater resources (300–500 km away). In Egypt, desalination is considered as a strategic alternative to water transport particularly after the construction of Ethiopian dam on the Blue Nile (the main source of water for Egypt).

    Integration of desalination with GHs has recently been introduced in warm and hot climate regions as an alternative solution for food production particularly in remote areas as in desert and coastal zones.

    This chapter outlines the desalination processes as a nonconventional resource for both potable and GH irrigation water. In addition, a summary of the different types of agricultural GHs is described. This is followed by a presentation of the different options of integrating desalination processes as a source of water for GHs irrigation. Finally, the chapter concludes with some case studies required for optimizing GH–desalination integrated system’s operational performance.

18. Securing Water Resources for Egypt: A Major Challenge for Policy Planners

    Bayoumi B. Attia

    Abstract

    The combined effect of rapid population growth and increasing living standards in Egypt has led to an increase in the demand for food. Food deficits in Egypt are increasing at an alarming rate. The total population of Egypt increased from around 71 million in the year 2006 to around 91 million in the year 2016. It is expected that Egypt’s populations will continue increasing to count about 120–150 million by the year 2050. The high population growth rate will exaggerate problems associated with water sector allocation.

    On the other hand, the structure of the Egyptian economy is presented by three main sectors, agriculture, industry, and services sectors, where both public and private sectors are participating in them. The GDP (global domestic product) per capita was used as an indicator of economic status. GDP in Egypt has been fluctuating during the period 2006–2016 from a maximum of 7.2 in the year 2008 to a minimum of 1.8 in the year 2011.

    The need for bringing new lands into production has become an urgent must. Reclamation of new lands is not only constrained by the land resources but also by the availability of water resources which is already scarce. Moreover, there is a substantial increase in the rate of domestic and industrial water requirements.

    In the light of these facts, it has become imperative to make the most beneficial use of the country’s limited water resources. Ensuring the availability of water supplies for all uses is the sole responsibility of the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI). In meeting this responsibility, MWRI has identified various opportunities for increasing the usable supply of water and/or improving the deficiency of its utilization, as it will be discussed in the following sections of this chapter.

19. Update, Conclusions, and Recommendations for the “Unconventional Water Resources and Agriculture in Egypt”

    Abdelazim M. Negm, El-Sayed E. Omran, Sommer Abdel-Fattah

    Abstract

    This chapter encapsulates the essential sustainability challenges (in terms of conclusions and recommendations) of the existing main agri-food system and presents insights derived from the cases in the volume. In addition, some (update) findings from a few recently published research work related to the sustainability covered themes. This chapter focuses on unconventional water resources and sustainability of agricultural environment in Egypt that were documented in this volume. To this end, we identify six main contribution areas, which includes toward integration of irrigation and drainage water, assessment of drainage systems, optimization of agricultural waste and reuse, drainage water quality assessment and improvement technologies, toward a sustainable reuse of water resources in Egypt, and securing water resources in Egypt. Therefore, conclusions will be built on researcher visions gained concerning study findings and limitations. In addition, this chapter encompasses evidence on a set of recommendations to direct future research toward sustainability of the agriculture, which is a main strategic theme of the Egyptian government. The set of recommendations is presented for specialists involved in following additional research to exceed the scope and findings of this volume.

20. Erratum to Innovative Aerobic Technology for Wastewater Treatment for Reuse in Agriculture

    Hossam Abdelsalam Elsayed, Ahmed Tawfik

21. Backmatter