Urban Air Quality Monitoring, Modelling and Human Exposure Assessment

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. Foundations of Air Pollution Monitoring, Modelling, Health Risk and Control Engineering

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 1. Introduction to Urban Air Pollution

      S. M. Shiva Nagendra, Mukesh Khare, Uwe Schlink, Anju Elizbath Peter

      Abstract

      Urban air quality is highly dynamic and it is largely controlled by micrometeorological conditions as well as anthropogeinic emissions. The unprecedented growth of urban centres, industries and vehicles population have resulted in serious air quality problems in several countries. In this chapter we briefly discuss urban air pollution, types of air pollutants, sources of air pollution, air quality trends, current air pollution issues and air quality management options.

   3. Chapter 2. Air Quality Monitoring and Techniques

      R. Ravi Krishna, S. M. Shiva Nagendra, Saraswati, M. Diya

      Abstract

      The important sources of air pollution can be identified with the installation of ambient air quality monitoring station. The sampling with monitoring station can provide current status of air quality of that particular area. This chapter describes the different measuring and analytical technique for monitoring of air quality. The different method for the collection of pollutant is also explained. The types of the gaseous monitoring techniques were described in Sects. 2.3 and its subsections. The different measurement techniques of particulate pollutants were explained in Sects. 2.4. The Section 2.5 explained some of the important concepts of data quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) with reference to the analysis of vapour-phase chemical composition in air.

   4. Chapter 3. Air Quality Modelling

      S. M. Shiva Nagendra, Uwe Schlink, Mukesh Khare

      Abstract

      Mathematical models are used for all aspects of air quality management, i.e., from event forecasting to long-term planning. Several approaches have been widely used in modelling of urban air pollution. These modelling approaches include deterministic, statistical, hybrid of deterministic and artificial neural networks. This chapter provides brief introduction to air pollution meteorology, basic concep

      ts involved in the development of air quality prediction models and source-receptor models for urban air quality management.

   5. Chapter 4. Air Quality Management and Control

      S. M. Shiva Nagendra, Mukesh Khare, Uwe Schlink, M. Diya

      Abstract

      Urban air quality is a critical issue in both developed and developing countries. In the recent past, the governments in both the developed and developing countries have initiated several strategies and action plans to address the urban air quality issues. This chapter discusses the principles of air quality management, framework for air quality management, air quality standards and legislations, air quality management practices in selected countries and challenges in air quality management.

   6. Chapter 5. Indoor Air Quality

      S. M. Shiva Nagendra, V. S. Chithra

      Abstract

      Over the years, changes in building design to improve energy efficiency have made modern homes, schools and workplaces more airtight than the older buildings. These improvements have led to more energy efficient buildings with less operational costs. But, the increased use of synthetic materials in the buildings has contributed to increase of a large number of harmful compounds in the indoors. In addition, outdoor air pollutants can also enter into the building through ventilation intakes, open doors and windows, and leaks in the building envelope. In general, the concentration of a pollutant in the indoor environment depends on the relationship between the volume of air contained in the indoor space, the rate of production or release of the pollutant, the rate of removal of the pollutants (reaction or settling), the rate of air exchange with the outside atmosphere, and the outdoor pollutant concentration. The composition of indoor pollutants is quite complex and their concentration levels and sources exhibit large variability among different microenvironments.

   7. Chapter 6. Personal Exposure and Health Risk Assessment

      S. M. Shiva Nagendra, Uwe Schlink, Andrea Müller, Jyothi S. Menon, V. S. Chithra

      Abstract

      Health risk associated with air pollution and its exposure has gained much importance in the recent years. The potential toxicity of air pollutants especially particulate matter (PM) is attributed to its chemical composition and size. Hence, it is imperative to understand the morphology, size, and chemical composition of PM for health risk assessment. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) present in PM have high toxicity and mutagenic potential. Recent advancement in technology such as bioassays for cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and apoptosis studies using human cell lines has allowed us to comprehend the underlying mechanism of particle toxicity and its impact on human health. This chapter deals with the health risks associated with air pollution and exposure assessment with a focus on chemical toxicity associated with air pollutants, especially PM. Health risks associated with particle-bound chemical compounds in school children are also explained in this chapter.

   8. Chapter 7. Air Quality Measuring Sensors

      S. M. Shiva Nagendra, Uwe Schlink, Mukesh Khare

      Abstract

      Air quality is typically registered by established systems of high-precision devices in order to monitor compliance with limit values. Nevertheless, these existing air quality measuring techniques have limitations: they cannot observe spatiotemporal variations in high resolution, provide data about target-specific monitoring, personal exposure, real-time alertness, feedback and control mechanism and many more. Recent technical developments provide new solutions for smart sensors that can measure pollutants in real-time and at small scales and have attracted the interest of a broad range of environmental researchers as well as authorities and local communities.

3. Case Studies

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 8. Short-Term Variation of Particulate Matter and Black Carbon During Deepawali Festival in an Urban Area

      Abhilash T. Nair, S. Devaanandan, S. M. Shiva Nagendra

      Abstract

      The present study assesses short-term variation in concentrations of particulate matter (PM) and black carbon (BC) in the ambient air of Chennai city due to the use of fireworks. PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 samples were collected throughout Deepawali celebration using high volume samplers. The particle size distribution of PM and mass concentrations of BC were measured using GRIMM portable aerosol spectrometer and aethalometer, respectively. The results indicated that 24-h averaged PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 concentrations increased remarkably to 118 µg/m³ and 90 µg/m³, respectively, during the Deepawali days. The 1-h average concentration of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 increased till 238 and 171 µg/m³, respectively. Similarly, the 1-hour average BC concentration also increased to 8800 µg/m³ due to excessive use of fireworks. The result suggests that the use of fireworks during festivals can worsen the current pollution problems in the city.

   3. Chapter 9. Surface O3 and Its Precursors (NOx, CO, BTEX) at a Semi-arid Site in Indo-Gangetic Plain: Characterization and Variability

      Nidhi Verma, Anita Lakhani, K. Maharaj Kumari

      Abstract

      A systematic analysis of surface ozone and its precursor (NO, NO₂, CO and BTEX) was carried out at a semi-urban site, Dayalbagh, Agra (27 °10′N, 78 °05′E) during January-December 2015. O₃ showed maximum levels in June (46.9 ± 18.7 ppb) while minimum levels in December (16.7 ± 10.5 ppb) while NOx and CO showed maximum levels in January and December. Maximum levels of ozone in summer months correspond to high temperature and intense solar radiation while maximum levels of primary emissions (NOx and CO) in winter months were influenced by an increase in combustion sources and low planetary boundary layer height. Aromatic hydrocarbons like Benzene, Toluene, Ethyl-benzene, m,p-Xylene and o-Xylene (BTEX) are also precursors of surface ozone. The maximum ozone formation potential (OFP) was calculated for Toluene (123) and minimum for Ethyl-benzene (15).

   4. Chapter 10. Predicting Particulate Air Pollution Using Line Source Models

      Selvakumar Madhavan, S. Geetha

      Abstract

      Air pollution due to vehicular emission can be modeled using line source models based on Gaussian equations. Several line source models are available for modeling the vehicular emission. This paper aims at finding a suitable line source model for modeling the vehicular pollution at Coimbatore city and validating the model by comparing it with the experimental observations. In this study the concentration of particulate matter in Coimbatore city, (Tamilnadu, India) is modeled by using General Finite Line Source Mode (GFLSM), IIT Line Source Model (IITLSM) Delhi Finite Line Source Model (DFLSM) and CALINE4 model. The results obtained from various line source models are compared with the data observed using high volume sampler. The observed data was mapped using Geographical Information System (GIS). The results obtained using Delhi Finite Line Source Model (DFLSM) was found to be close to the observed data.

   5. Chapter 11. Prediction of Air Pollution by the Contribution of Road Traffic—Signal Processing and Higher-Order Statistics (HOS) Spectra Approach

      S. Sangeetha, P. Venkatakrishnan, G. Srikanth

      Abstract

      The primary goal of this chapter is to construct, develop and predict a mathematical model for the assessment of quality of air pollution in air by using relevant data transformation techniques and their higher-order statistics. In this work, the road traffic vehicle flow of static and dynamic characteristics in the origin–destination (OD) matrix has been analyzed by wavelet transform technique. The assistance of wavelet zooming in the road traffic data with different scales provides excellent localization of its intensity in temporal–spatial distribution. The Lipschitz exponent (LE) value α has been used to measure the regularity (global or local) of road traffic vehicle density. The standard procedure of LE value is determined by the rectangular coordinate of x-axis which represents logarithmic of scale s component versus y-axis that represents logarithmic of wavelet transform modulus maxima (WTMM). This prediction model consists of the following major pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), volatile organic compounds (VOC) and particulate matter (PM) which are the under observation study done using the corresponding equipment. In each OD matrix and its average line flow, link density and link speed are measured using higher-order statistics. With the help of Mann–Whitney hypothesis test, the average line density between the OD matrix and the traffic flow characteristics between the link and the speed of the vehicles in each link has been analyzed. Using higher-order statistics, highly significant differences are contrived from the observations among the OD matrices between different time slots of peak and nonpeak of traffic hours. The objective of this study will help the department of pollution control board for the diagnosis of air pollution through traffic vehicle density regulation.

   6. Chapter 12. Performance Evaluation of UK ADMS-Urban Model and AERMOD Model to Predict the PM10 Concentration for Different Scenarios at Urban Roads in Chennai, India and Newcastle City, UK

      Prince Vijay, S. M. Shiva Nagendra, Sunil Gulia, Mukesh Khare, Margaret Bell, Anil Namdeo

      Abstract

      The pollutants and its effects on human health are now a major issue around the world. The impact of traffic and the resulting vehicle emissions has come to the forefront. Particulate matter is one among six criteria pollutants and air pollution related to particulate matter is now becoming a serious problem in developing as well as developed countries. One of the main sources is from the vehicles and the resuspension caused by the vehicular movement. Source apportionment studies of Chennai (Clean Air Asia: Air quality profile 2010 edition) showed that from the residential monitoring stations levels of particulate matter in Chennai lies in the range of 51–70 µg/m³. According to DoT of the total road emissions in UK, about 80% is generated from particulate matter which is due to road traffic even though there are no factors like resuspension in this country. In UK, 103 areas have been declared as local air quality management areas (LAQMA), while in India, 72 cities have been identified as non-attainment area with respect to various air pollutants. Chennai, India and Newcastle City, UK which are the cities under study are the one among them facing severe air pollution problems. The main objective of the paper is application and evaluation of UK ADMS-Urban and AERMOD model for the prediction of particulate matter (PM₁₀) concentrations at urban roadways in Chennai and in Newcastle. The model evaluation has been carried out using traffic data of 2009, meteorological data provided by Laga Systems, Hyderabad for both the cities and the real-time monitored data of the year 2009. The results of the study identified the trends in pollutant patterns and its variation with the different parameters of meteorological data. The statistical descriptors, namely index of agreement (IA), fractional bias (FB), normalized mean square error (NMSE), geometric mean bias (MG) and geometric mean variance (VG) were used to understand the performance of the model. Results indicated that both the models have been able to predict the pollutant concentration with reasonable accuracy. The IA values for ADMS and AERMOD are found to be 0.39 and 0.37, and 0.48 and 0.44, respectively, for Chennai and Newcastle City.

   7. Chapter 13. Modeling of Atmospheric Mercury Deposition in India

      Krish Vijayaraghavan, Shari Libicki, Ross Beardsley, Sunil Ojha

      Abstract

      Mercury emissions may cause harm to human health and ecosystems through atmospheric deposition and subsequent methylation and bioaccumulation. This paper presents results from a computer modeling study of mercury emissions, and their subsequent dispersion, chemical transformations and deposition worldwide and in India, in particular. Emission sources modeled include anthropogenic sources such as coal-fired power plants and production of cement, iron, steel and non-ferrous metals such as zinc and copper as well as natural emissions from land and water. A global chemistry transport modeling system is applied to characterize the long-range transport and transformations and deposition of the three common forms of atmospheric inorganic mercury. The modeled wet and dry deposition rates are compared across different areas of India and with other regions.

   8. Chapter 14. Risk-Based Optimal Ranking of Air Quality Monitoring Stations in a Fuzzy Environment: A Case Study

      Jyoti Yadav, Ashok Deshpande

      Abstract

      Air Pollution can certainly be associated with increased levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, health effects and climate change. Therefore, evaluation of ambient air quality, associated with uncertainty in the form of fuzziness (imprecision), and randomness assumes significant importance in the changing environment scenario. The methods used for describing air quality, i.e. Conventional Air Quality Index (CAQI) and also newly developed fuzzy logic-based Zadeh-Deshpande (ZD) formalism consider only a few air quality criteria pollutants. However, there are other constraints which could be imprecise/fuzzy. For example there could be several Air Quality Monitoring Stations (AQMS) in a city but with varying degree of certainty expressed in numeric terms using ZD formalism. In this paper, we demonstrate the application of a combination of ZD and Bellman–Zadeh (BZ) method in final risk-based optimal ranking of AQMS which is basically a complex multi-constraint decision-making problem. Furthermore, classification of twelve cities in Maharashtra State, India into different air quality clusters to demonstrate the importance of the concept of supervised learning followed by unsupervised learning using reference level concept is presented.

   9. Chapter 15. Impact of Increasing Ozone on Agricultural Crop Yields

      Sonal Kumari, Nidhi Verma, Anita Lakhani, K. Maharaj Kumari

      Abstract

      In the present study, ozone (O₃) measurements at a suburban site of Agra were made to estimate O₃-exposure-related crop yield losses for two major crops for the period 2010–13. M7 (mean 7-h ozone mixing ratio) and AOT40 (accumulated O₃ exposure over a threshold of 40 ppb) exposure metrics were used to inter-compare crop yield losses for two crop-growing seasons Rabi and Kharif. The relative yield losses (RYL) for rice and wheat ranged from 7 to 10% and 10 to 34%, respectively, on the basis of AOT40 while on the basis of M7 metric RYL for both the crops ranged from 0.7 to 4% and 3 to 11%, respectively. In 2011, the largest crop production loss (CPL) for wheat 0.27 million tons corresponding to an economic cost loss (ECL) of 345.4 million rupees using AOT40 metric was observed. Similarly, the highest CPL for rice using AOT40 metric was observed in 2011 (1290 tons) with ECL of 1.4 million rupees.

   10. Chapter 16. Air Pollution Episode Analysis and Qualitative Evaluation of Proposed Control Measures in Delhi City

       Sunil Gulia, S. K. Goyal, Rakesh Kumar

       Abstract

       Increasing air pollution levels in Delhi city is a major concern for regulators and stakeholders because of its associated critical and acute health impacts on human beings. During the onset of winter every year (in the months of October and November), people of Delhi were facing an increased level of pollutant concentrations from the last few years. The present study is an attempt to analyze the increased air pollution level episodic situation that occurred during 5–6th November 2016 in Delhi city. Four differently located air monitoring stations data on Air Quality Index, pollutant concentration, and meteorology from 25th October to 15th November 2016 are considered for the present analysis. The results indicate that PM_2.5 concentrations exceeded 12–14 times whereas PM₁₀ levels exceeded 8–17 times of NAAQS values of 60 µg/m³ and 100 µg/m³, respectively on 5–6th November 2016. The meteorological conditions were found worst for pollution dispersion on these two days which may be one of the reasons for high air pollution occurrence. However, NO_x and SO₂ concentration peaks were observed during Diwali days (Oct. 29–31, 2016). Critical analysis of the situation indicates that local sources are influencing the pollutant concentration significantly at the monitoring stations. Further, the qualitative evaluation of the graded response action plan (GRAP) indicates that the efficacy of a particular mitigation action on pollution reduction shall vary from site to site. Hence, in order to improve air quality in different zones, more emphasis needs to be given on regulating local activities as per suggested actions in addition to the regional level action plans.

   11. Chapter 17. Stabilizing Different Subgrade Soils with Pond Ash to Lower Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Bituminous Pavements in India

       Gaurav Gupta, Hemant Sood, Pardeep Kumar Gupta

       Abstract

       A noteworthy quantum of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is emitted due to the construction and maintenance of bituminous pavements and contributes to global warming. In order to curb GHG emissions, sustainable construction methods like soil stabilization with waste materials need to be incorporated in practice by engineers. In this study, the subgrade layer of pavement was stabilized with pond ash, a waste material generated from burning of coal in thermal power plants. California bearing ratio and Proctor (modified) tests were carried out to determine the strength and compaction characteristics, respectively. The proposed stabilization enhanced the bearing strength of the subgrades. The improved strength characteristics of the subgrade resulted in the reduced requirement of materials and their transportation, eventually minimizing GHG emissions. For broad applicability, the study was carried out on six different soils of altering plasticity, which is found predominantly in north India. Reduced GHG emissions justify applicability of pond ash in creating a sustainable environment.

   12. Chapter 18. Strategic Approach for Emission Reduction from Coal-Fired Thermal Power Plants in India

       Shipra, Asim Kumar Pal

       Abstract

       With the development of society, people become more and more dependent on energy. In present scenario, coal is the major fuel for energizing the economy. India is the 6th largest country in terms of power generation. In India major part of the electricity produced from thermal power plant. Thermal power plants use coal, petroleum or natural gas to produce electricity among which coal is the major source. Coal burning in power plant releases a significant amount of CO₂, NO, SO_x, and airborne inorganic particles in the environment. In this research paper, an approach has been made to evaluate total emission of CO₂ (in particular) along with NO, SO_x and Hg from these thermal power plants. In Indian power plants different qualities of coal are used with different combustion technology and operating condition. The study reveals that CO₂ emission/release from these thermal power plants is expected to increase from 589 Mt/year (2010) to 1007 Mt/year (2020) if no proper step will be taken in this respect. SO₂ emissions increased from 3.04 Mt/year in 2010 to 5.20 Mt/year in 2020, while NO emissions increased from 0.90 to 1.54 Mt/year during this period. Since pollution becomes the threat to the environment, it is very important to improve the existing technology used in thermal power plants, clean coal technology are one of them. Role of different clean coal technologies like supercritical (SC), ultra-supercritical (USC), etc., in the reduction of CO₂ emission are also discussed and it was found that maximum of 33% of the reduction can be obtained in case of more efficient clean coal technology, although per kw electricity generation cost is more in advance technology.

   13. Chapter 19. Plasma-Based Hybrid Technique for Abatement of Pollutants (NOx and CO) from Stationary Engine Exhaust-Effect of Loading Condition and Flow Rate

       A. D. Srinivasan, N. Jagadisha, R. Rajagopala

       Abstract

       A laboratory study on pollutants (nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide) removal from the stationary diesel engine exhaust was carried out using electric pulse discharge promoted adsorbent/catalytic technique. The main objective is to explore the exhaust flow rate and engine loading effect on the pollutant removal using plasma hybrid process. Hybrid system consists of plasma cascaded with adsorbent/catalytic reactor which exhibits superior NO_x and CO removal efficiency compared to individual processes. Experiments were carried out with different arrangements. More than 93% of NO_x reduction by plasma adsorbent hybrid system and about 75% CO reduction by catalyst alone at 400 °C have been achieved. Further, the results of work carried out with different exhaust flow rates, concentration/engine loading conditions are tabulated and discussed.

   14. Chapter 20. Evaluation of Carbon Foot Print Reduction in Aviation Infrastructure

       D. M. M. S. Dissanayaka, W. W. A. S. Fernando

       Abstract

       International civil aviation is considered as a highly regulated industry to achieve safety standards. However, mandatory regulation is not imposed on its environmental impact. Carbon emission in aviation can be categorized as, emission from aircraft and emission from airport operations. Many aviation bodies neglect the emission from airport operations. Many of the emission sources that have received inadequate attention have a significant impact on local air quality at the airport operation. Existing literature sparsely addressed the emission from airport operation. The research aimed to identify the emission inventory at an international airport and to assess the level of carbon emission from those sources while identifying the requirement of measuring it. A methodology was developed to evaluate the relative impacts of emission sources in airport operations. Bandaranaike International Airport, Sri Lanka (BIA), was taken as a case for developing the methodology. The outcome proved with a time series modelling, that the carbon emission from airport operation cannot be negligible when heading towards green aviation.

   15. Chapter 21. Structural Analysis of Interactions Between Airborne Pollutants and Chemically Modified RNAs

       Kannan Krishnamurthi, Pravin K. Naoghare, Saravana S. Devi, Amit Bafana, Patrizio Arrigo

       Abstract

       Polluted air is a global threat for biodiversity and human health. The air pollution has two different possibilities to affect functionality of biological systems: directly and indirectly. The first is based on direct inhalation of polluted air, and the second is due to fall out of pollutants in water and soil during weather events as rain or snow. The availability of new experimental molecular techniques allows to deeply analyze the effect of specific chemicals on molecular mechanisms. The effects on DNA have long been known, conversely only more recently the attention has been focused on mechanisms involving the RNAs. This paper proposes the possibility that an airborne chemical pollutant could directly influence the naturally chemically modified RNAs (N6-methyadenosine) that are involved in epi-transcriptomics regulation. In this paper, we investigated, at structural genomics level, the interaction between selected hazardous air pollutants and RNAs carrying a N6-methyladenosine.

   16. Chapter 22. Characterization of PM10 and Its Impact on Human Health During Annual Festival of Lights (Diwali) in Northeast India

       Rajyalakshmi Garaga, Sri Harsha Kota

       Abstract

       India, observes Diwali as the celebration of lights, which fully brightens the nation with its splendor and amazes all with its happiness. However, the burning of firecrackers on this day leads to contamination of air causing adverse effects on human health. To study this impact, an air quality study was carried out in northeast India and chemical characteristics of PM₁₀ were studied. The mean PM₁₀ concentration during Diwali period was 311 µg/m³, an increase of 81% from other days, exceeding National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) by 3.1 times. Source apportionment using the US EPA’s positive matrix factorization model indicated that fireworks burning are the chief contributor to Sr, Cl⁻, and Fe. A health study conducted during the analysis period revealed an increase in hospital admissions in the campus due to respiratory-related diseases. This indicates the importance of regulated and monitored burning of fireworks in regions with high population density.

   17. Chapter 23. Toxicological Study of Nanoparticles: An Attempt to Relate Physicochemical Characters with Toxicity

       A. Seenivasan, M. Muthuraj, T. Panda

       Abstract

       Nanoparticles are being employed in numerous diverse fields of engineering and medicine attributed to their exclusive size and inherent physicochemical characteristics. The increased use of nanoparticles resulted in an unregulated environmental release and human exposures thereby prompting toxicological assessments and hazard analysis mandatory. With high frequency of nanoparticles in the market, incomplete assessments, hazard analysis and categorization remain the toughest job. Interestingly, the physicochemical properties are governing factors not only that determines utility, but also their toxicity. Thus, several attempts are being made to link the hazardous effect of particles with its physicochemical properties thereby reducing the experimental requirements. Moreover, it is mandatory to account mechanism of toxicity, which is still lagging. The present study reviews the physicochemical properties as cues to determine the toxicity of nanoparticles with possible mechanisms detailed.

   18. Chapter 24. Comparative Study of Gas and Particulate Phase Concentrations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) at Two Sites in Agra

       Puneet Kumar Verma, Dinesh Sah, K. Maharaj Kumari, Anita Lakhani

       Abstract

       Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) are present in both the gas and particulate phase in the atmosphere. Samples of aerosols were collected simultaneously at a rural and traffic dominated site in Agra during winter season to measure the gas and particulate phase concentrations of PAHs. An air sampler (Model TE-1000X) was used for sampling. To collect the particulate PAHs quartz micro fiber filter papers were used and polyurethane foam plugs were used for the gas phase. Samples were extracted in a mixture of dichloromethane (DCM) and n-hexane (4:1 ratio). The 16 priority PAHs were analyzed by Gas Chromatograph -Mass Spectrophotometer (GC-MS) (Bruker Scion SQ). Gas + particulate phase concentration of individual PAH ranged from 38 to 4112 ng m⁻³ at the traffic site while it ranged from 18 to 1316 ng m⁻³ at the rural site. The partitioning of PAHs between both the gas and particulate phase was investigated. The influence of meteorological parameters on the gas-particle partitioning of these compounds has been studied.

   19. Chapter 25. Estimation of Passenger Exposure to PM2.5 on a Highway

       Soma Sekhara Rao Kolluru, Aditya Kumar Patra

       Abstract

       In a stretch of about 210 km from Vijayawada (VJA) to Bhadrachalam (BCM) (NH30 and 65), the PM_2.5 exposures inside the bus, car, and car (with AC) were measured over a month using portable instruments. The PM_2.5 exposure level inside the bus was 72.30 μg m⁻³ ± 58.17 μg m⁻³. Exposure level in car was 84.20 μg m⁻³ ± 68.38 μg m⁻³ and in car (AC) was 55.30 μg m⁻³ ± 34.13 μg m⁻³. The exposure levels are 2.0–3.5 times of the background PM_2.5 level and are higher than the limits set by WHO and USEPA. Car with windows open appears to result in the highest exposure among all the modes of transport. Car (AC) resulted in the least commuter exposure. Such exposure studies, especially on highways and expressways, are very important because travel on road is becoming more popular with increasing ownership of vehicles,  yet very few studies on passenger exposure in long route are available.

   20. Chapter 26. Assessment of Organic Markers in Fine Aerosol of Mumbai City

       Abba Elizabeth Joseph, Seema Unnikrishnan, Rakesh Kumar, S. Vivek Balachander

       Abstract

       The organic chemical composition of fine particles is very useful in identifying the sources. In receptor model, inorganic elements are used as tracers which have many sources, whereas organic markers serve as unique fingerprints of combustion sources. With this background, organic markers were estimated in an indoor and outdoor environment of Mumbai city. About 40 PAHs, 24 alkanes, 18 hopanes, 12 sterane, 2 methyl alkanes, 3 branched alkanes, 5 cycloalkanes, and 1 alkene were identified and quantified from each category. The lowest average ambient PAHs concentration of 0.820 ng/m³ was observed at Colaba, whereas it was maximum at Khar (4.185 ng/m³). The indoor PAHs concentration varied from 1.174 ng/m³ at Mahul to 3.195 ng/m³ at Khar. The present study discusses the probable sources and the relationship between indoor and outdoor markers in Mumbai city during 2007–2008. Molecular marker percent contribution to PM_2.5 aerosol is minimal, but it contains useful information about the sources especially of combustion origin.

   21. Chapter 27. Distributions of n-Alkanes, Alkanoic Acids and Anhydrosugars in Wintertime Size-Segregated Aerosols Over Middle Indo-Gangetic Plain

       Nandita Singh, Tirthankar Banerjee

       Abstract

       Airborne particulates were collected over a typical urban environment over middle Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) during winter (January–February, 2016), and fractionated into eight stages using an Anderson cascade impactor. The molecular characterization of organic compounds was carried out for coarse mode (PM_>2.1), fine mode (PM_2.1–1.1) and submicron mode particles (PM_<1.1). The weekly average mass concentration of total aerosol varied from 189 to 449 µg m⁻³ (mean ± SD: 279 ± 83). Mean (±1σ) concentration of PM_>2.1 (209 ± 76; range: 117–367 µg m⁻³) far exceeded PM_1.1–2.1 (22 ± 7; 16–37 µg m⁻³) and PM_<1.1(48 ± 8; 40–58 µg m⁻³). The normalized mass frequency distribution showed a bimodal pattern with average median aerodynamic diameter of 4.4 µm and geometric standard deviation of 3.8. Particle-bound organic compounds, e.g. 21 n-alkanes, 3 anhydrosugars and 11 n-alkanoic acids were analysed for three particle size fractions using organic solvent extracts followed by gas chromatography—mass spectroscopy analysis. Analysed organic aerosols (OA) were found to constitute 16% of total aerosols, 8% of submicron, 7% of the fine mode and 1% of coarse mode. Based on organic molecular marker and variation in particle-bound size-segregated OA, we conclude that the burning of biomass and fossil fuel, residential cooking, re-suspended road dust are the major sources of OA over middle IGP.

   22. Chapter 28. Exposure of PM2.5 and Carbonaceous Matter Amongst Rural Inhabitants in and Around Durg District of Chhattisgarh, India

       Shailendra Kumar Kushawaha, Yasmeen F. Pervez, Sumita Nair, Shamsh Pervez

       Abstract

       This study was carried out in Durg District of Chhattisgarh, comprising of 83 villages. It was the need for monitoring and analysis of PM_2.5 to perceive the scenario and exposure of particulates over region located in rural areas of agricultural state of Chhattisgarh, dominated with anthropogenic activities related to heavy biomass fuel burning. Three rural areas, Achhoti (AC), Anjora (AN), Chandkhuri (CH) were selected and monitoring of PM_2.5 and carbonaceous matter were carried out during winter and summer seasons in 2014–2015. The average seasonal variations of PM_2.5 concentrations for winter and summer seasons for all sampling locations were recorded in the following order; Chandkhuri (CH) 611.37 ± 112.57 µg m⁻³ and 428.74 ± 80.64 µg m⁻³ ˃Achhoti (AC); 533.13 ± 98.5 µg m⁻³ and 380 ± 74.19 µg m⁻³ ˃ Anjora (AN); 524.36 ± 99.42 µg m⁻³ and 317 ± 59. 77 µg m⁻³, respectively. As per the annual standards given by CPCB and USEPA, the concentration of PM_2.5 is higher in all sampling sites. The higher OC/EC ratio indicated the formation of secondary organic carbon (SOC), which was emitted from various primary sources. It is found in the study of high loads of fine particulates along with carbonaceous fractions purposes that it is obligatory and instant action in reduction of the emissions of carbonaceous particulates in Durg district, Chhattisgarh.

   23. Chapter 29. Assessment of Biomass Burning Emissions from India—A Comprehensive Study

       N. Manojkumar, B. Srimuruganandam

       Abstract

       The evolving scientific knowledge relating to the influence of biomass burning on climate change is both exciting and puzzling. Over the decades, significant impacts of biomass burning emissions on human health and atmospheric processes have been well recognized. The burning of biomass involves complex processes to break apart the biomass molecules and decompose compounds into burning products or emissions. The transformation of biomass compounds during the burning process that determines the characteristics of the subsequent emissions has been poorly understood due to the complexity of the mechanisms involving both physical and chemical processes. Also, biomass burning emissions on a global scale have been continuously investigated to understand their impacts and influence on the ambient atmosphere and the climate system. However, the regional/continental scale has always been averaged to the global scale. Further knowledge of emission sources from biomass burning is crucially important in the quantitative assessment of its potential impacts on the environment. This paper presents a comprehensive assessment of gaseous and particulate emissions from forest fired biomass burning within a regional scale (from India) and their influence on the global climate change. Initially, forest burned area is quantified from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) dataset. Further, gaseous compounds and particulate matter emitted from forest fires are estimated using emission factors, the mass of fuel available for combustion and combustion factor. During the study period, a total of 137.6 Tg CO₂, 0.425 Tg N₂O and 0.016 Tg CH₄ are emitted from forest fires. These greenhouse gases together had a radiative forcing of 2.559 W m⁻² in 2013 and 2.586 in 2014.

   24. Chapter 30. Correlation Assessment of Indoor Air Pollutants Emitted by Household Fuels and Its Health Impacts

       B. S. Shilpa, K. S. Lokesh

       Abstract

       About 6% of National Burden of Diseases (NBD) in India is attributed to domestic fuel emissions. The objective of present research is to assess the various domestic fuels emission in the indoors and their associated health risks. In this work, western part of Mysore city is considered as the study area to monitor pollutants such as NO₂, SO₂, CO, SPM, and RSPM emitted from five different fuels i.e., kerosene, biomass, cowdung cakes, coal, and LPG in different households. Indoor and ambient sampling was carried out simultaneously for a time period of 2 h before cooking, during cooking and after cooking. 8 h sampling was adopted for ambient air sampling. Morphological characteristics of RSPM were determined using Scanning Electron Microscope. Indoor/outdoor ratios of pollutants were assessed to determine the indoor ventilation conditions. A varimax-rotated factor analysis was carried out for indoor data sets in an effort to identify pollutants emitted by household fuels causing health implications.