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2019 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

6. “White is a color, Middle Eastern is not a color”: Drop-Down Menus, Racial Identification, and the Weight of Labels

verfasst von : Andrew DJ Shield

Erschienen in: Immigrants on Grindr

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Having established that race- and ethnicity-related discourses circulate on Grindr, this final analytic chapter scrutinizes the technology itself (i.e. Grindr) for its role in encouraging conceptions of and discourses about race. Like many other socio-sexual platforms, Grindr highlights “ethnicity” (really meaning race) on its platform as a primary way for users to define themselves, and provides a limited set of drop-down options. These drop-down menus afford other users the possibility to conduct race-selective searches. The first half of the chapter historicizes and critiques Grindr’s “ethnicity” menu options, and argues that its categories are based largely in a U.S. American understanding of racial difference. The second half elaborates on how and why users negotiate, challenge, or reject the menu and its options.

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Fußnoten
1
On critical analyses of human “categorization” see Geoffrey C. Bowker and Susan Leigh Star, Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999).
 
2
Based on fifteen readings from December 2016, March 2017, and September 2017, and based on 4- and 36-km radii from a point by the Copenhagen University Humanities Campus. For 4 km, N = 586 average.
 
3
Based on just 206 profiles in Rome and Milan (also in 2016). The Italian researchers did not specify the likelihood that someone responded with “White” or another label from the menu. Lorenza Parisi and Francesca Comunello, “Exploring Networked Interactions through the Lens of Location-Based Dating Services: The Case of Italian Grindr Users,” in LGBTQs, Media, and Culture in Europe, ed. Alexander Dhoest et al. (London: Routledge, 2017), 235.
 
4
The data was based five readings with an average of N = 590. Additionally, 89.5% of users displayed a profile photo, but as mentioned in Chapter 3, a researcher would have to scrutinize these profiles individually to see how many were face photos, how many were unrelated landscape photos, and so forth. Age can still be ascertained via filter even when invisible; data on percentage who display age must be tallied individually. The vast majority of those who clarified their relationship status were single (85%). Though 14% of users specified being in relationships by selecting “Married,” “Partnered,” or “Open Relationship.” The final 1% identified with one of Grindr’s more ambiguous drop-down menu options: “Committed,” “Dating,” “Engaged,” and “Exclusive.”
 
5
The “position” menu also received very low response rates, which could relate to the menu options’ focus on penetrative anal sex (with options Top, Vers Top, Versatile, Vers Bottom, and Bottom), with no options for those preferring oral or non-penetrative sex. Users’ unwillingness to engage with this menu could also reflect that sexuality is still a “big deal” and that users are hesitant to declare personal sexual identities openly on their profiles. See, e.g., Stefanie Duguay, “Three Flawed Assumptions the Daily Beast Made About Dating Apps,” Social Media Collective Research Blog, 16 August 2016, https://​socialmediacolle​ctive.​org/​2016/​08/​16/​three-assumptions-the-daily-beast-made-about-dating-apps/​.
 
6
Tribes are listed alphabetically. Grindr’s unpaid users can select one option, while Grindr Xtra users can select three options. The most underutilized menu is Grindr’s “Tribe” menu, which I argue is a result of the vast majority of Grindr users (at least in Copenhagen) feeling discord with the concept of a “tribe” and with the limited options. Some of these options include physical-related labels common in (especially U.S. American) gay cultures, such as “twink” (e.g. for young, often smooth/hairless guys), “bear” (e.g. for husky, hairy, often older men), and “otter” (e.g. for slim, hairy men). Other tribes focus on personal adjectives (clean-cut, discreet, geek, rugged), object fetishes (leather), or other typically masculine identities (daddy, jock). Some labels might correspond to leisure activities, meaning that “geeks” might like computer games, or “jocks” like sports. The remaining tribes are “poz” (for HIV positive people) and “trans” (e.g. for those who identify as transgender), perhaps the most immutable of the tribes.
 
7
The fact that “Toned” falls out of alphabetical order appears to be a mistake, but I can recall that it was changed from “Athletic.”
 
8
Russell Robinson, “Structural Dimensions of Romantic Preferences,” Fordham Law Review 76 (2008): 2792. See also McGlotten, 147 fn40.
 
9
For more on affordances specifically within a digital culture framework: Gina Neff et al., “Affordances, Technical Agency, and the Politics of Technologies of Cultural Production: A Dialogue,” Culture Digitally, 23 January 2012, http://​culturedigitally​.​org/​2012/​01/​affordances-technical-agency-and-the-politics-of-technologies-of-cultural-production-2/​; Peter Nagy and Gina Neff, “Imagined Affordance: Reconstructing a Keyword for Communication Theory,” Social Media + Society 1, no. 2 (2015): 1–9.
 
10
Victor Kaptelinin, “Affordance,” in The Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction, ed. Mads Soegaard et al., 2nd ed. (Interactive Design Foundation, 2011).
 
11
For analysis of the commercial agency at work in an online gay business: Ben Light et al., “Gay Men, Gaydar and the Commodification of Difference,” Information Technology and People 21, no. 3 (2008).
 
12
The other three possible ads are the following: when attempting to filer by weight: “Your size is in stock”; by body type, “Shape up your search”; or by sexual position, “Top or bottom bunk?” One cannot search by gender identity as of 2019, except via the ‘Trans’ tribe. Age and tribe filters are free to all users, as is “looking for.”
 
13
As Erwin Goffman theorized with regard to more traditional media, “frames” modify a subject’s perception of information, expanding or contracting certain features so that the subject (e.g. a reader, an audience) can make sense of the information. The frame guides the audience to interpret and interact with the media in specific ways. This is parallel in some ways to the interface, with its visual cues. Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (London: Harper & Row, 1974).
 
14
Johanna Drucker, “Humanities Approaches to Interface Theory,” Culture Machine 12 (2011): 4. To Drucker, an interface is a “zone of affordances organized to support and provoke activities and behaviors probabilistically.” Drucker observed a dearth in academic inquiries about technological interfaces. Rather, the discourses that dominated discussions of interfaces—words like “user feedback” and “design”—came from the software industry. Consequently, Drucker outlined a humanities-based theory of discussing interfaces, drawing from three main fields: graphical reading practices (especially from literature on comic books), frame analysis (especially from Goffman), and the understanding of “the subject” as something fundamentally tied to environment and human psychology. See also Drucker, 7; Goffman, Frame Analysis.
 
15
Drucker, 6.
 
16
See discussion of sociologist Geert Hofstede’s work in Drucker, 11.
 
17
Anne-Mette Albrechtslund, “Gender Values in Simulation Games: Sex and the Sims,” Proceedings of Computer Ethics Philosophical Enquiries (2007): 3.
 
18
Ibid., 4.
 
19
Light et al.
 
20
Ibid., 307.
 
21
Lisa Nakamura, Cybertypes: Race, Ethnicity, and Identity on the Internet (New York and London: Routledge, 2002). Nakamura looks at early social media geared at people of color—such as AsianAvenue.​com and BlackPlanet.​com—and how “mestiza or other culturally ambiguous identities—such as those belonging to hyphenated Americans—are rendered unintelligible, inexpressible, and invisible, since they can’t be (or rather, aren’t) given a ‘box’ of their own”; Nakamura, 120.
 
22
Nakamura, Cybertypes, 101–102.
 
23
Ibid.
 
24
Andil Gosine, “Brown to Blonde at Gay.com: Passing White in Queer Cyberspace,” in Queer Online: Media Technology and Sexuality, ed. K. O’Riordan and D. Phillips (New York: Peter Lang, 2007): 139–153.
 
25
Gosine, 145. Emphasis added.
 
26
Ibid.; On the four strategies “employed to encourage, if not ensure, racial identification” in Gay.com chat rooms, see Ibid., 143.
 
27
Gosine, 150 and 148.
 
28
E.g. Shaka McGlotten, Virtual Intimacies: Media, Affect, and Queer Sociality (Albany: SUNY Press, 2013), 68 and 74; Gosine, 148.
 
29
Some of this literature is cited in Gosine and McGlotten; see also, e.g., Alexander Chee, “My First (and Last) Time Dating a Rice Queen,” The Strangler, 21 June 2017, https://​www.​thestranger.​com/​queer-issue-2017/​2017/​06/​21/​25227046/​my-first-and-last-time-dating-a-rice-queen.
 
30
McGlotten, 67.
 
31
Ibid., 69.
 
32
Ibid., 70.
 
33
See final paragraphs of Chapter 4, via Franz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Charles Lam Markmann (London: Pluto Press, 1986 [1952]).
 
34
Karen R. Humes et al., “Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010” (U.S. Census Bureau 2010 Census Briefs, March 2011), 2–3, https://​www.​census.​gov/​2010census/​data/​.
 
35
Ibid., 2 fn7. Also, Elizabeth M. Hoeffel et al., “The Asian Population: 2010” (U.S. Census Bureau 2010 Census Briefs, March 2012), 3 fn9, https://​www.​census.​gov/​2010census/​data/​.
 
36
Bowker and Star, 196.
 
37
Ibid., Chapter 6, which underscores the government’s brute force with regard to classification, and its distain for ambiguity. Under apartheid, South Africans were classified by race according to characteristics such as complexion, hair, earlobe softness, facial profile, and reportedly even social behaviors, from club affiliations to eating and sleeping habits.
 
38
Ibid., 224. Defined by critical race theorists as the “pragmatic junction between that which is perceived as real, and the consequences of that” category.
 
39
Humes et al., 2.
 
40
Bureau of the Census, “United States Census 2010,” Department of Commerce, last accessed via https://​www.​census.​gov/​history/​.
 
41
Ana Gonzalez-Barrera and Mark Hugo Lopez, “Is Being Hispanic a Matter of Race, Ethnicity or Both?” Pew Research Center, 15 June 2015, http://​www.​pewresearch.​org/​fact-tank/​2015/​06/​15/​is-being-hispanic-a-matter-of-race-ethnicity-or-both/​.
 
42
Ibid.
 
43
Bureau of the Census, “Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940—Housing,” Department of Commerce, last accessed via https://​www.​census.​gov/​prod/​www/​decennial.​html.
 
44
The 1960 census also provided options for “Aleut” and “Eskimo,” two groups that were later integrated under the umbrella “American Indian or Alaska Native.”
 
45
Bureau of the Census, “Untitled [1970 Census Questionnaire],” Department of Commerce, last accessed via https://​www.​census.​gov/​prod/​www/​decennial.​html.
 
46
See, e.g., Kimberly McClain DaCosta, Making Multiracials: State, Family, and Market in the Redrawing of the Color Line (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007); Debra Elizabeth Thompson, “Seeing Like a Racial State: The Census and the Politics of Race in the United States, Great Britain and Canada” (PhD diss., University of Toronto, 2012).
 
47
Nakamura, Cybertypes, 119–121.
 
48
Humes et al., 3. This definition does not acknowledge ethnic minorities in North Africa and the Middle East, such as Egyptian Nubians, nor does it acknowledge the long histories of ethnic mixing and fluidity between definitions.
 
49
One possible explanation for the separation of “White” from “Middle Eastern” is the fact the Grindr’s founder—Joel Simkhai, who was born in Israel and raised in the United States—has identified as “Middle Eastern” on all of the Grindr profiles he has shared with the media since 2010. In interviews, he has never clarified his rationale for separating “Middle Eastern” from “White” on Grindr’s drop-down menu. Having grown up in the United States, Simkhai would have been accustomed to identifying as “White” on official documents like the U.S. Census; see, e.g., Elliot, “Ten Money Questions: Grindr CEO Joel Simkhai,” Queercents, 14 December 2010, http://​queercents.​com/​2010/​12/​14/​grindr-ceo-joel-simkhai-interview/​; Olivia Goldhill, “People Really Are Finding Love on Dating Apps Like Grindr and Tinder,” Business Insider, 2 July 2013, http://​www.​businessinsider.​com/​we-found-love-on-grindr-2013-7?​r=​US&​IR=​T&​IR=​T.
 
50
Nicholas Boston, “Libidinal Cosmopolitanism: The Case of Digital Sexual Encounters in Post-enlargement Europe,” in Postcolonial Transitions in Europe: Contexts, Practices and Politics, ed. Sandra Ponzanesi and Gianmaria Colpani (London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016), 304–305; also Andrew DJ Shield, “New in Town: Gay Immigrants and Geosocial Dating Apps,” in LGBTQs, Media, and Culture in Europe, ed. Alexander Dhoest et al. (London: Routledge, 2017), 254.
 
51
A Grindr user cannot change the app’s language via Grindr’s settings. But if the user’s smartphone is programmed for Spanish or Portuguese, for example, then Grindr will automatically translate to these languages.
 
52
E.g. (on “Mediterraneans”) Frank Bovenkerk, “The Netherlands,” in International Labor Migration in Europe, ed. Ronald E. Krane (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1979); (on the Scandinavian equivalent of “Southerners”) J. W. Sørensen, “Der kom fremmede: Migration, Højkonjunktur, Kultursammenstød, Foreign Workers in Denmark up to 1970” [There Were Strangers Who Came: Migration, High-Conjuncture and Culture Clash], Aarhus University, Working paper for the Center for Culture Research, 1988.
 
53
See also Shield, “New in Town,” 254.
 
54
Angelo (from Greece) echoed this sentiment: “I don’t even like these categorizations that they have. And if you’re mixture, or have a lot of everything somehow—I don’t know. And it could be racist, too,” he ended, referring to racial filtering.
 
55
“Kurdish guy, 30” also highlighted his Kurdish background, which clarified his “Middle Eastern” selection from the Grindr menu and “Türk, 22” puts a Turkish flag at the end of his display name, but wrote in his profile that he (only or also) spoke English and Danish.
 
56
E.g. George Orwell’s text cited and analyzed in Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books and Random House, 1979), 251–252; original text: “It is always difficult to believe that you are walking among human beings… Are they really the same flesh as yourself? Do they even have names? Or are they merely a kind of undifferentiated brown stuff, about as individual as bees or coral insects?”.
 
57
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, “Can the Subaltern Speak?” in Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, ed. Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988).
 
58
Latinx is a gender-neutral term for the binary Latino/Latina, beyond the neutral but binary term Latin@.
 
59
José Esteban Muñoz, “Feeling Brown, Feeling Down: Latina Affect, the Performativity of Race, and the Depressive Position,” Signs 31, no. 3 (Spring 2006).
 
60
Hiram Pérez, A Taste for Brown Bodies: Gay Modernity and Cosmopolitan Desire (New York: New York University Press, 2015), 104.
 
61
In my previous research collecting oral histories about the 1960s–1980s, I interviewed a gay man (b. 1947) living in Jutland who identified as half-black, half-white, and preferred the word “colored” in Danish (farvede), but added that he knew that the term was outdated. Younger generations, he said, might prefer “mixed” (miksede); but he did not mention that people might identify with the term “brown.” See Andrew DJ Shield, Immigrants in the Sexual Revolution: Perceptions and Participation in Northwest Europe (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 227–228, and especially 240 fn1.
For a recent example of the Danish word for “brown” being used in regard to a racial minority with no other reference to ethnic background, see for example a passage in a teaching manual about race in the classroom where a comment is directed at “the classroom’s only brown student”: Mette Lindegren Helde, Du har et valg! Lærervejledning: En undervisningspakke om emnet social kontrol [You Have a Choice! Teacher Guidance: A Teaching Pamphlet on the Subject of Social Control] (Denmark: Danish Ministry of Immigration and Integration, April 2017).
 
62
Cecil Brown et al., “The Midnight Sun Never Sets: An Email Conversation About Jazz, Race and National Identity in Denmark, Norway and Sweden,” in Afro-Nordic Landscapes: Equality and Race in Northern Europe, ed. Michael McEachrane (London: Routledge, 2014), 65, 75–76. Later, he contradicted himself slightly by saying, “I’ve never really seen myself as black, brown or white,” but although Tchicai expresses some hesitation in identifying with the label “brown,” it seems that this was a label toward which he frequently gravitated.
 
63
Mazur: “I can relate to what John [Tchicai] wrote about growing up as a ‘brown’ kid in Denmark. During my childhood in Denmark there were very few people of color around, which sometimes brought out some curiosity in people, but few negative reactions.” Ibid. [Brown et al.], 81.
 
64
Translated from Danish. Uzma Ahmed, “About: Brown Feminists,” Facebook.com, last accessed December 2017 via https://​www.​facebook.​com/​pg/​brunefeminister/​. See also personal website http://​uzma.​dk/​om-uzma/​. Uzma also uses the term “brown” when describing the darker of her two mixed-race daughters: Andreassen and Ahmed-Andresen, 35.
 
65
Anne Middelboe Christensen, “Ung, brun, og søgende” [Young, Brown, and Searching], Information, 28 August 2016, https://​www.​information.​dk/​kultur/​anmeldelse/​2016/​08/​ung-brun-soegende. See description of Ernesto Piga Carbone’s role (as a gay man) in the Copenhagen play “Vinger” about “brown” Danes.
 
66
Another user identifies as “Mixed” and included the flags for Denmark and Greenland.
 
67
On Scruff, he would be able to select Pacific Islander from the “ethnicity” drop-down menu; and I would wager he has a profile on Scruff, a platform that caters to “bears,” since he identifies with this niche.
 
68
Fahad Saeed, via “Grindr and Sex Culture,” Panel at Copenhagen Pride with Kristian Møller, Fahad Saeed, Niels Jansen, and Andrew Shield, 16 August 2017, http://​kanal-1.​dk/​14-grindr-sexkultur-lystfulde-politiske-hadefulde-perspektiver/​.
 
69
Sabaah meeting, November 2017. This quotation is a rough approximation of what the young man said (in Danish), as I did not record the meeting, but instead took notes immediately following it.
 
70
Adam Isaiah Green, “Sexual Capital and Social Inequality: The Study of Sexual Fields,” in Introducing the New Sexuality Studies, ed. Nancy L. Fischer and Steven Seidman (New York: Routledge, 2016); also Catherine Hakim, “Erotic Capital,” European Sociological Review 26, no. 5 (2010): 499–518.
 
71
Gosine, 145. Emphasis added.
 
72
Sabaah, “[Debat:] Tænder ikke på asiater” [Debate: I’m Not Turned On by Asians], 19 February 2013, https://​www.​youtube.​com/​watch?​v=​qvSuHQPFWGw; Fahad Saeed et al., “Grindr and Sex Culture” (panel).
 
73
Bowker and Star, 196.
 
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Zurück zum Zitat Shield, Andrew DJ. “New in Town: Gay Immigrants and Geosocial Dating Apps.” In LGBTQs, Media, and Culture in Europe, edited by Alexander Dhoest, Lukasz Szulc, and Bart Eeckhout, 244–261. London: Routledge, 2017. Shield, Andrew DJ. “New in Town: Gay Immigrants and Geosocial Dating Apps.” In LGBTQs, Media, and Culture in Europe, edited by Alexander Dhoest, Lukasz Szulc, and Bart Eeckhout, 244–261. London: Routledge, 2017.
Zurück zum Zitat Sørensen, J. W. “Der kom fremmede: Migration, Højkonjunktur, Kultursammenstød, Foreign Workers in Denmark up to 1970” [There Were Strangers Who Came: Migration, High-Conjuncture and Culture Clash]. Aarhus University, Working paper for the Center for Culture Research, 1988. Sørensen, J. W. “Der kom fremmede: Migration, Højkonjunktur, Kultursammenstød, Foreign Workers in Denmark up to 1970” [There Were Strangers Who Came: Migration, High-Conjuncture and Culture Clash]. Aarhus University, Working paper for the Center for Culture Research, 1988.
Zurück zum Zitat Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” In Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” In Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988.
Zurück zum Zitat Thompson, Debra Elizabeth. “Seeing Like a Racial State: The Census and the Politics of Race in the United States, Great Britain and Canada.” PhD diss., University of Toronto, 2012. Thompson, Debra Elizabeth. “Seeing Like a Racial State: The Census and the Politics of Race in the United States, Great Britain and Canada.” PhD diss., University of Toronto, 2012.
Metadaten
Titel
“White is a color, Middle Eastern is not a color”: Drop-Down Menus, Racial Identification, and the Weight of Labels
verfasst von
Andrew DJ Shield
Copyright-Jahr
2019
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30394-5_6