Wood Polymer Nanocomposites

In this chapter, various clay and monomer were introduce to produce high strength wood polymer nanocomposites and discussed how they play important role on nonocomposites to enhance their properties. Low-quality wood can be modified through suitable chemical treatments to improve the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties to meet specific end-use requirements. The in situ polymerization is one of the most popular technique to modified and produce wood polymer nanocomposites. Some common chemical treatments have proven to be effective in improving wood hardness, dimensional stability, stiffness, fire resistance, UV resistance, biological resistance, and aesthetic appeal. Due the further improvement, dual monomer mixture along with reinforcing filler was significant improve the physical, mechanical, thermal, hardness, dimensional stability, stiffness, fire resistance, UV resistance, and biological resistance. The various monomers were used, namely styrene, methyl methacrylate, phenol formaldehyde, phenolic resins, urea formaldehyde, and melamine formaldehyde. However, monomer impregnation and chemical modification were also investigated using new chemical formulations in the present study.

In this chapter, different types of wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs) with various clay and monomer were prepared through curing methods, wood-hardening process, and chemical impregnation as well as compression of wood. The samples were ensured to dry at 105 °C up to constant weight before treatment. The dimensions and weights were measured. The samples were undergoing impregnation process in an impregnation vacuum chamber. WPNCs produced were characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), compression test, Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).

In the current study, to develop the compression strength, thermal stability, and surface morphology of batai wood (Paraserianthes moluccana) which was impregnated by blended of styrene, methyl methacrylate, and nanoclay. Wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs) were produced by the co-polymerization reaction which was occurred with cellulose in the wood cell wall by Styrene (ST) and methyl methacrylate (MMA) crosslinker and it was confirmed by Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) Spectroscopy. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) was employed to investigate the thermal stability. The mechanical properties of the WPNCs were expressively improved compared to the raw wood whereas WPNCs demonstrated higher thermal permanence comparative to the raw wood due to the co-polymerization reaction. The surface morphologies of the fracture surface for both the raw wood and WPNCs were recorded using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). WPNCs display smoother surface and adhesion compared to that of raw wood due to the co-polymerization reaction that was seen in the SEM micrographs.

A large variety of tropical wood species has been found in Malaysia, especially the Borneo state of Sarawak. The nominated fresh wood species, namely Artocarpus Elasticus, Artocarpus Rigidus, Xylopia spp., Koompassia Malaccensis, and Eugenia spp. were chemically modified with sodium metaperiodate for manufacturing them into plasticized wood (PW). Prepared plasticized wood models were analysed using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy and mechanical testing [modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), static Young’s modulus (E _s)], decay resistance and water absorption. MOE and MOR were calculated using the compression parallel to grain test and the natural laboratory decay test, respectively. PW showed the higher MOE, MOR, E _s and lower water content compared to raw one whereas modified wood showed higher resistance to decay exposure. Eugenia spp. had highest resistance compared to the others.

Raw wood was impregnated with N,N-dimethylacetamide to form fabricated wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs). FT-IR spectra showed enhanced absorption at 1419 and then 1267 cm⁻¹ which confirmed the occurrence of a modification reaction. TGA data of the fabricated WPNCs indicated a better thermal stability compared to the raw wood. The dynamic Young’s modulus of the WPNCs was significantly increased compared to raw wood. Through impregnation, SEM micrographs showed porous cells of raw wood was fully filled with the polymer, which led to the better stability of WPNCs. XRD analysis indicated that the crystallinity of WPNCs increased due to the increment in the stiffness as well as the thermal stability of WPNCs.

In this study, urea-formaldehyde resin wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs) were investigated. All the WPNCs undergo characterizations. The FT-IR spectra confirmed the impregnation of organic urea-formaldehyde into the raw wood. Besides, WPNCs were generally more thermally stable over temperature compared to the raw wood due to the introduction of urea-formaldehyde into the raw wood. From mechanical testing, WPNCs showed higher MOE and MOR for Eugenia spp. and Xylopia spp., respectively. Besides, WPNCs on Eugenia spp. showed higher Young’s modulus compared to raw wood and other WPNCs. From the X-ray diffraction patterns, the crystallinity of WPNCs increased with the introduction of urea-formaldehyde resin into raw wood. The SEM micrograph of WPNCs clearly proved that the void space was fully filled with urea-formaldehyde resins and most of the waxy substance was removed. Therefore, urea-formaldehyde-impregnated WPNCs showed significantly effective on Eugenia spp., continued by Xylopia spp. and Artocarpus elasticus wood species.

From the present work, the fabrication of epoxy/MMT wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs) was investigated. From FT-IR characterization, it confirmed the C–O stretch of C–O–H in starch at 1232 and 1182 cm⁻¹ as well as the C–O stretch of C–O–C in starch at 1029 cm⁻¹ with the decreasing wave number. This proved that raw wood was well impregnated by epoxy/MMT. In addition, Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) proved that WPNCs were more thermally stable over temperature compared to raw wood due to the high impact of montmorillonite (MMT) on wood. The stiffness, modulus of elasticity (MOE), and modulus of rupture (MOR) were significantly increased on WPNCs of Eugenia spp., Xylopia spp., Artocarpus Rigidus, and Artocarpus Elasticus compared with raw wood. From X-ray diffraction patterns, the addition of epoxy/MMT improved the crystallinity of WPNCs at the amorphous region. SEM analysis showed that the void space in raw wood was fully filled with epoxy/MMT, and the waxy substances were removed. It could be concluded that epoxy/MMT was significantly effective on Eugenia spp., followed by Xylopia spp., Artocarpus Rigidus, and Artocarpus Elasticus, respectively.

In this study, the introduction of nanofiller into phenol formaldehyde matrix formed wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs). FT-IR results showed that the addition of nanoclay into phenol formaldehyde (PF) formed H-bonding interaction with hydroxyl groups by reducing the wave number of the peak. The Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) results showed that WPNCs were thermally stable compared to the raw ones. The MOE and MOR of WPNCs were significantly improved for Eugenia spp., Xylopia spp., Artocarpus Rigidus, and Artocarpus Elasticus respectively. The Young’s modulus of WPNCs on Eugenia spp. was significantly higher compared to raw wood. From X-ray diffraction results, WPNCs showed improved crystallinity at the amorphous region due to the polymer loading. SEM micrograph of WPNCs showed that void space was filled with the polymer, and the waxy substance was removed. All the nanofiller/phenol formaldehyde was significantly effective on Eugenia spp. followed by Xylopia spp., Artocarpus Rigidus, and Artocarpus Elasticus wood species, respectively.

In this study, we evaluate the physical, mechanical, and morphological properties of a clay dispersed styrene-co-glycidal methacrylate (ST-co-GMA) impregnated wood polymer nanocomposite (WPNC). The WPNC was characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), 3-point bending, and free-vibration testing. The FT-IR results showed that the absorbance at 1730 cm⁻¹ was increased for ST-co-GMA-clay-WPNC compared with other nanocomposites and the raw material. The SEM results showed that ST-co-GMA-clay-WPNC had a smoother surface than other nanocomposites and raw wood. The modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), and dynamic Young’s moduli (E _d) of WPNCs were considerably increased compared to wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs) and raw wood. The raw wood exhibited a higher water uptake (WU) than WPNCs.

In this study, we evaluate the physical, mechanical, and morphological properties of a clay dispersed styrene-co-glycidyl methacrylate (ST-co-GMA) impregnated wood polymer nanocomposite (WPNC). The WPNC was characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), 3-point bending, and free-vibration testing. The FT-IR results showed that the absorbance at 1730 cm⁻¹ was increased for ST-co-GMA-clay-WPNC compared with other nanocomposites and the raw material. The SEM results showed that ST-co-GMA-clay-WPNC had a smoother surface than other nanocomposites and raw wood. The modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), and dynamic Young’s moduli (Ed) of WPNCs were considerably increased compared to wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs) and raw wood. The raw wood exhibited a higher water uptake (WU) than WPNCs.

In this study, physico-mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties of wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs) of styrene-co-ethylene glycol dimethacrylate with clay (ST-co-EGDMA-clay) and styrene with clay (ST-clay) wood polymer composite (WPC) of styrene-co-ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (ST-co-EGDMA) and styrene (ST) were investigated. The WPNC was characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), 3-point bending and free-free vibration testing, and thermogravimatric analysis (TGA). The FT-IR results showed that the absorbance at 1730 cm⁻¹ increased for ST-co-EGDMA-clay-WPNC and ST-co-EGDMA-WPC compared to other composites and the raw wood. The XRD result revealed that the d-spacing of ST-clay-WPNC, ST-co-EGDMA-WPC, ST-WPC, and ST-co-EGDMA-clay-WPNC was higher than the raw wood. The SEM results showed that ST-co-EGDMA-clay-WPNC and ST-clay-WPNC had a smoother surface compared to the other composites and raw wood. The modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), and dynamic Young’s moduli (E _d) of ST-co-EGDMA-clay-WPNC were higher than those of ST-co-EGDMA-WPC, ST-clay-WPNC, ST-WPCs, and raw wood, respectively. The raw wood exhibited a higher water uptake (WU) compared to WPNCs and WPCs. ST-co-EGDMA-WPC was more thermally stable, compared to other composites and raw wood.

In this study, the physico-mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties of styrene-co-3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate (ST-co-SPMA) with clay impregnated wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs) were investigated. The WPNCs were characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), 3-point bending and free-vibration testing, and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). The FT-IR results showed that the absorbance intensity at 698 cm⁻¹ was higher for ST-co-MSPM-clay-WPNC and ST-

In this study, physical, morphological, mechanical, and thermal properties of acrylonitrile/butyl methacrylate/halloysite nanoclay wood polymer nanocomposites (AN-co-BMA-HNC WPNCs) were investigated. AN-co-BMA-HNC WPNCs were prepared via impregnation method, and the effect of different ratio between the polymers was subsequently investigated. The properties of nanocomposites were characterized through weight percent gain, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), three-point flexural test, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis, and moisture absorption test. The weight percent gain in 50:50 AN-co-BMA-HNC WPNCs was the highest compared to raw wood (RW) and other WPNCs. FT-IR results confirmed the polymerization took place in the nanocomposites, especially 50:50 AN-co-BMA-HNC WPNCs with reducing hydroxyl groups. SEM result revealed that the 50:50 AN-co-BMA-HNC WPNCs showed the best surface morphology among all the samples. Through three-point flexural test, 50:50 AN-co-BMA-HNC WPNCs showed the highest flexural strength and modulus of elasticity. The results revealed that the storage modulus and loss modulus of AN-co-BMA-HNC WPNCs were higher while the tan δ of AN-co-BMA-HNC WPNCs was lower compared to RW. AN-co-BMA-HNC WPNCs exhibited the higher thermal stability through TGA and DSC analysis. 50:50 AN-co-BMA-HNC WPNCs exhibited significantly lower moisture absorption compared to RW. Overall, this study proved that the ratio 50:50 AN-co-BMA was the most suitable to be introduced in the RW.

In this study, physical, morphological, mechanical, and thermal properties of furfuryl alcohol/glycidyl methacrylate/halloysite nanoclay wood polymer nanocomposites (FA-co-GMA-HNC WPNCs) were investigated. FA-co-GMA-HNC WPNCs were prepared via impregnation method, and the effect of different ratio between the polymers was subsequently investigated. The properties of nanocomposites were characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), three-point flexural test, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), differential Scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis, and moisture absorption test. The weight percent gain for 50:50 FA-co-GMA-HNC WPNCs was the highest compared to raw wood (RW) and other WPNCs. FT-IR results confirmed the polymerization took place in the nanocomposites especially 50:50 FA-co-GMA-HNC WPNCs with reducing hydroxyl groups. SEM result revealed that the 50:50 FA-co-GMA-HNC WPNCs showed the best surface morphology among all the compositions. Besides, 50:50 FA-co-GMA-HNC WPNCs showed the highest flexural strength and modulus of elasticity. The DMA results revealed that the storage modulus and loss modulus of FA-co-GMA-HNC WPNCs were higher while the tan δ of FA-co-GMA-HNC WPNCs was lower compared to RW. FA-co-GMA-HNC WPNCs exhibited the higher thermal stability through TGA and DSC analysis. 50:50 FA-co-GMA-HNC WPNCs exhibited significantly lower moisture absorption compared to RW. From the analysis, 50:50 FA-co-GMA showed the best compatibility with RW among all the compositions.

In this study, physical, morphological, mechanical, and thermal properties of furfuryl alcohol/glycidyl methacrylate/halloysite nanoclay wood polymer nanocomposites (FA-co-EHMA-HNC WPNCs) were investigated. FA-co-EHMA-HNC WPNCs were prepared via impregnation method, and the effect of different ratio between the polymers was subsequently investigated. The properties of nanocomposites were characterized by weight percent gain, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), three-point flexural test, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis, and moisture absorption test. The weight percent gain in 50:50 FA-co-EHMA-HNC WPNCs was the highest compared to raw wood (RW) and other WPNCs. FT-IR results confirmed the polymerization took place in the nanocomposites especially 50:50 FA-co-EHMA-HNC WPNCs with reducing hydroxyl groups. SEM result revealed that the 50:50 FA-co-EHMA-HNC WPNCs among all the nanocomposites. Through the three-point flexural test, 50:50 FA-co-EHMA-HNC WPNCs showed the highest flexural strength and modulus of elasticity. The results revealed that the storage modulus and loss modulus of FA-co-EHMA-HNC WPNCs were higher while the tan δ of FA-co-EHMA-HNC WNPCs was lower compared to RW. FA-co-EHMA-HNC WPNCs exhibited the higher thermal stability through TGA and DSC analysis. 50:50 FA-co-EHMA-HNC WPNCs exhibited significantly lower moisture absorption compared to RW. Overall, this study proved that the ratio 50:50 FA-co-EHMA was the most suitable to be introduced in the RW.

The goal of this study was to evaluate the decay resistance of different ratio of ST/MMA/clay monomer system impregnated batai wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs) against Trametes versicolor (white-rot) and Chaetomium globosum (soft rot) fungi. Besides, Kumpang wood was impregnated by styrene, 3-(trimethoxysilyl) propyl methacrylate (MSPMA), ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA), maleic acid (MA), glycidyl methacrylate (GMA), and nanoclay. Overall, both fungi very lightly attacked to the 50:50:5 ST/MMA/clay monomers impregnated WPNCs. 50:50:5 ST/MMA/clay monomer impregnated WPNCs greatly enhance the decay resistance against the both fungi. For Kumpang wood, the raw wood was well impregnated and improved the decay resistance toward Trametes versicolor and Coniphora puteana. Therefore, it is recommended that 50:50:5 ST/MMA/clay monomers impregnated WPNCs as well as ST-co-MSPA-WPC, ST-clay-WPNC, ST-co-MA-WPC, and ST-co-GMA-WPCs are technically suitable for exterior use where both moisture and favorable conditions for fungi development are present. Besides, WPCs at pH8 and pH9 showed higher decay resistance toward Coniphora puteana and Trametes versicolor, respectively.