Wood Waste Management and Products

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. Challenges and Opportunities in Wood Waste Utilization

   Nurul Huda Abu Bakar, Nurjannah Salim

   Abstract

   Wood wastes have the potential to be utilized in the manufacturing of a wide range of products, such as engineered wood products, energy generation, and additive manufacturing. These low-cost biomasses that are only partially exploited have the potential to increase the value that can be added to waste wood products. The objective of this chapter is to address the challenges encountered as well as the opportunities presented by the utilization of wood waste. With the aid of this knowledge, the right approach can be identified for the development of wood waste in the future, which will result in the most long-term benefits for both the environment and the economy. The lack of adaption of more sophisticated technology and the absence of organizations concerned with the potential advantages of making use of such wastes is the source of the problem with wood waste. From this review, it is indicated that wood waste has the potential to be used as a source for the manufacture of a variety of materials; therefore, in order to make the most of the value of wood waste resources, the government should implement efficient guidelines for wood waste management.

3. Life Cycle Assessment of Wood Waste

   Siti Noorbaini Sarmin, Mohammad Jawaid, Rob Elias

   Abstract

   Wood waste can be decreased without significantly impacting the world's forests by enhancing the effectiveness of primary wood consumption and utilising raw wood supplies produced by sustainable forest administration. Wood waste can be utilised to create a wide range of goods, including engineered wood products, energy production (heat and electricity), mulch, and animal bedding. These low-cost, underutilised feedstocks have the potential to boost the added value of wood waste. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a method for examining the environmental impact of materials, products, and services, and it is intended to aid in the development of sustainable decisions. This chapter discusses important difficulties concerning the life cycle assessment (LCA) of wood waste products. We looked at the process by which LCA evaluates the whole environmental effects of wood output, whether as input or output, over the course of a product’s life, from raw material to end-of-life disposal or rebirth as a new product.

4. Concern on Wood Waste Utilization: Environment and Economic Evaluation

   Noorshashillawati Azura Binti Mohammad

   Abstract

   This chapter highlights the concern on wood waste utilization regarding on environment and economic evaluation. Wood waste is the part of the effluents that can comprise discarded wood, whole trees, stumps, or clipped branches. Wood waste is also derived from downstream (sawmills) to furniture, boards, and moldings. Forest waste (waste from deforestation) and residues from wood processing plants are also two types of wood waste associated with sawmill operations. Wood waste can be decreased without negatively impacting the world’s forests by improving the productivity of primary wood consumption and using raw wood resources produced from sustainable forest management [1‐5]. Due to the defects in the felled trees, the production of sawn timber is considered wasted. Only about 47% of the logs that reach the sawmill are converted into salable timber. The remaining residue containing 33% wood chips, 7% sawdust, 8% shavings, and 5% bark should be discarded or otherwise used [6]. The timber industry is an important industry in Malaysia. At the same time, the timber industry has a significant impact on the environment in general (air, water, and soil) and in particular on land and resource management. So, we must give emphasis to the solution. For example, the adoption of cleaner technology and waste minimization (Krajnc and Domac in Energy Policy 35:6010–6020, 2007). The main factors of environmental degradation are recognized as:

   • Inefficient use of timber creates excessive waste and leads to the over-clearing of forests and plantations.
   • Burning of branches and treetops in forests and plantations.
   • Open burning of wood waste from industry on-site or off-site.
   • Inadequate or unlicensed on-site incinerators
   • Illegal disposal of waste (especially sawdust) into rivers, wastelands, and so on.

   The vast amount of waste generated from wood processing operations in many countries presents challenging opportunities for utilizing wood waste. Consequently, the timber sector is anticipated to see both timber costs and waste disposal costs rise. Subsequently, wood waste is it is anticipated that wood waste will gradually become a valuable resource. Wood waste is a sustainable, inexpensive, and widely accessible source of energy that has the potential to replace fossil fuels in a variety of uses, made up of heat, power, and biofuels. The expanded use of agricultural biomass can aid agriculturally based countries in achieving energy security and providing jobs without contributing to environmental damage [1, 4, 7, 8].

5. Development and Performance of Wood Waste Briquettes in Pyrolysis Reactor

   Mohammed Nasir, Pawan Kumar Poonia, Kaizar Hossain, Mohammad Asim

   Abstract

   In the present scenario, fossil fuel-based energy comprising oil, coal and natural gas is the main source of global energy. It is leading to many environmental issues like global warming, acid rain and urban smog. Moreover, this fossil fuel is non-renewable and anticipated to be depleting in the next 4–5 decades. Wood-based energy generation is one of the oldest energy sources, and consist of many advantageous characteristics. In this review, the briquette manufacturing technology from waste wood through different processes is discussed. Huge amount of wood-based biomass produced every year throughout the world, in the form of used furniture, temporary houses and industrial waste is a liability to municipal departments of the cities and generally used as a landfill. Such wood waste can be potentially utilized for briquette manufacturing. The wood waste type, amount and availability are varying in different countries depending on domestic and industrial practices. Since the briquette is a product of wood, the product quality is dependent on the raw material characteristics like density, moisture and calorific properties of wood. Other factors like impurities in waste wood and the addition of binding material in briquette manufacturing determine the economics and market value of the briquette. The quality of the briquette is assessed on the basis of product density and calorific value. Different manufacturing technology is being practised based on the size, the moisture content in raw material and the adhesive used. The briquettes are generally burnet in a pyrolysis reactor that requires lower heating temperature, and equipment investment, however, produce high energy and different by-products like bio-oil, biochar and pyrolysis gas which is used in further heating. Therefore, wood waste briquetting is not only a good substitution for energy sources but a genuine disposal of waste material.

6. Wood Waste as a Renewable Energy Source: Effect of Pretreatment Technology for Sustainable Bioethanol Production

   Zubaidah Aimi Abdul Hamid, Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis

   Abstract

   Concerning the availability of further fossil fuel supply, greenhouse gas emissions, global warming, and rising fuel prices, it is necessary to identify renewable, ecologically friendly, and economically feasible new alternatives for raw materials for energy sources. Lignocellulosic biomass (LB) derived from wood waste has great potential as an alternative source to produce second-generation biofuels without affecting global food security. However, the major constraints of LB are the presence of physical and chemical barriers caused by the interconnection of the primary constituents of lignocellulosic biomass (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin), which makes this component resistant to hydrolysis into fermentable sugars. Thus, the conversion of LB to bioethanol requires extensive processing, especially at the pretreatment stage. In general, pretreatment procedures for turning wood waste into bioethanol are classified into chemical, physicochemical, and biological. The objective of pretreatment is to improve enzyme accessibility, thereby enhancing the digestibility of cellulose and other components that can increase the production yield. Current findings addressing the application, mechanism, and production yield of different pretreatment strategies, such as chemical, physiochemical, and biological procedures, to produce bioethanol from wood waste have been expansively presented.

7. Valorization of Wood Waste as Biosorbent for the Removal of Organic and Inorganic Contaminants in Water

   Nurul Syarima Nadia Sazman, Nurul Izzati Izhar, Nur Ramadhan Mohamad Azaludin, Shaari Daud, Hartini Ahmad Rafaie, Zul Adlan Mohd Hir

   Abstract

   The valorization of wood waste as biosorbent has sparked intense interest from researchers, exclusively for removing organic and inorganic contaminants in aqueous solutions. Highlights on several desirable features including higher porosity, outstanding physicochemical properties, and selectivity offer a new vision towards sustainable chemistry for environmental protection. A decline in water quality poses significant domestic and industrial challenges. However, their performance and effectiveness for removing such contaminants from water depends on how they are fabricated, how they work together, and what mechanisms are at play. The use of this material and approach in the water recovery process suggests that developing an enhanced protocol is necessary for successfully and realistically removing the contaminants from the environment.

8. Present Scenario and Future Scope of the Use of Wood Waste in Wood Plastic Composites

   Alcides Lopes Leao, Ivana Cesarino, Milena Chanes de Souza, Ivan Moroz, Otavio Titton Dias, Mohamad Jawaid

   Abstract

   Wood plastic composites (WPC), a class of biocomposites, represent important tools in the production history of sustainable materials and substantial breakthroughs in the area have been realized to enhance their physical and mechanical properties (Das et al. in Sci Total Environ 512–513:326–336, 2015a). However, disadvantages still exist, such as lower mechanical resistance and consequent necessity to increase part size, inferior dimensional stability, higher density, discoloration, flammability, and rottenness. These factors limit the adequate application of biocomposites in wider markets, and although studies have been conducted to alleviate these drawbacks, further investigation is necessary to solve these problems and relieve as many deficiencies as possible (Nagarajan et al. in ACS Omega 1:636–647, 2016). Current literature on the theme shows that these WPCs can be fabricated from a wide variety of polymer matrices, including LDPE, HDPE, PP, ABS, PVC, and PLA. However, there are disadvantages which limit the applicability of WPCs: processing temperature is limited by wood degradation at high temperatures; the incompatibility between hydrophobic matrices and hydrophilic wood fibres; reduction of mechanical properties if compared to parent materials; and finally, flammability issues derived from the flammable nature of wood. Two routes stand out to overcome these difficulties: the use of additives or other reinforcements in association with wood particulates, and the transformation of the wood particles itself before addition via physical and/or chemical processing. From the environmental point of view, the pyrolysis process emerges as a possible solution to recycle several types of residues (including wood) into a higher value material known as biochar. Considering the recent publication trends, it seems that biochar production may be the future target for wood residues since biochar can be used for a myriad of applications, including reinforcement of a new generation of biocomposites, called second generation WPCs. Other advantages are the reduction of carbon footprint and the use of low-cost raw materials. This class of products may be called WPBC—Wood Plastic Biochar Composite. Given the significant number of production variables, this material must be better studied and tested in composites of biological basis.

9. Viability of Building Materials Made of Wood Waste: Sustainability and Its Performances

   Krishna Manjari Sahu, Swapnita Patra, Sarat K. Swain

   Abstract

   Where wood waste (WW) management is a big challenge for proper utilization towards sustainable applications, numerous numbers of attempts are made to solve the problem. Different forms of WW have been utilized for various important purposes like sound resistance, fire retardant, insulating material, and strength enhancing material including various fancy and decorative applications. The present chapter summarizes the possibilities of designing viable building materials in modern society. Out of sundry kinds of applications of WW, the performance in making building material has taken special interest by researchers. Various types of WW and their sustainable applications are schematically established for better understanding of readers. WW is used as a special additive in the preparation of concrete to enable construction. It is noticed that WW containing concrete has been used as a potential material in wall panelling, making of stoneware tiles, designing of CO₂ sink, etc. Thermal insulators and electrical insulating materials prepared from WW are useful in making of sustainable building materials. The importance and advantage of WW are analysed for manufacturing of sustainable and green building materials. Further, importance of WW in designing of acoustic platform for resistance of echo of sound in different halls, studios, and other gathering in close rooms has also been discussed. The present chapter reveals new ideas regarding making of various sustainable building materials from WW, for which the present article is a solution to the challenges in WW management.

10. Building Material in Circular Economy: The Suitability of Wood Waste in Bio-concrete Development

    Messaouda Boumaaza, Ahmed Belaadi, Hassan Alshahrani, Mostefa Bourchak, Mohammad Jawaid

    Abstract

    The production of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and concrete, as well as the production of aggregates, significantly increases carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. However, bio-concretes can act as eco-friendly substitutes for conventional concretes making the demand for them on the rise for the many uses they are put to. Construction materials are usually recycled or turned into waste following demolition. As a result, a minor fraction of the economic value and sustainability inherent in them gets exploited by the construction industry. Consequently, the necessity for improving material effectiveness within the resource base will likely rise with the increase in human demand, as it would also be necessary to secure resources for the future. Circular economy (CE) principles may help mitigate the aforementioned problems within the construction industry if they are applied to recirculating construction materials. This chapter presents an approach toward using advanced technologies of implementing CE in the management and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of bio-concretes, which are produced by combining wood waste ash (WWA) in place of cement, wood waste (WW) as fine aggregates and wood aggregates (WA) as coarse waste. Thereafter, the chemical and physical properties, the microstructural characteristics, and the strength of wood waste–based bio-concrete (WWBC) are examined. Additionally, the ecological consequences and perspectives of WWBC production as well as its practical applications as a construction material have been examined to evaluate the effects of the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) and carbon footprints. The circularity of WWBC has been discussed to achieve reduction in material waste and carbon footprint as well as encourage further research to improve the sustainability of construction materials in general.

11. Application of Wood Waste in Agriculture

    Noorshilawati Abdul Aziz, Nurulatika Minhad, Nur Suraya Abdullah, Fazidah Rosli, Nazatul Asikin Muda, Muhammad Esyam Adip, Noor Azimah Darus, Mohd Khairi Che Lah

    Abstract

    This article reviews the application of wood waste materials in agriculture sectors. Wood waste has numerous potentials to become a value-added product that can be applied in diverse activities including agriculture, energy production, the furniture industry, and construction material. The products that could be obtained from wood wastes comprise organic amendments such as compost and biochar, poultry bedding, organic mulching, source of renewable energy, and construction and furniture materials. These various sources could enhance crop production, and revenue and resolve food security challenges if they are fully utilised. This systematic review elucidates the diverse areas in which wood waste could be utilised in agriculture and addresses the issues contributing to the underutilisation of wood waste in the agricultural sector. The gathered information will be relevant and beneficial to players and stakeholders in the agricultural sector. In conclusion, wood waste remains a promising and beneficial source that could be recycled as other products and concurrently boost productivity in the agriculture industry. The utilisation of wood waste materials could also generate income, thereby reducing the risk of environmental deterioration and adverse effects on human health.

12. Potential Use of Residual sawdust—A Versatile, Inexpensive and Readily Available Bio-waste

    Mohd Hazim Mohamad Amini

    Abstract

    Biomass commonly comes from plants or lignocellulosic materials. The main chemical components in plant biomass include cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and extractives. According to their size and geometry, small-sized woody biomass is called different names. Each form has its suitable application. Larger particles are ideal for standard wood composites such as the oriented strand board and particleboard. Medium-sized particles are ideal for energy pellet, pulp and papermaking applications. Meanwhile, smaller particles are suitable for applications involving chemical reactions such as nanocellulose extraction, liquefaction and bioethanol production. Wood plastic composites usually utilise medium to small-sized particles. This chapter will introduce the sources and various applications of these small woody biomass materials.

13. The Possibility of Using Wood Peeler Core as The Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

    Norul Hisham Hamid, Norasikin Ahmad Ludin, Nur Ezyanie Safie

    Abstract

    The wood peeler core is a waste generated during the peeling process of the veneer. The peeler core size varies by species, spindle type, processing, and lathe machine. For several decades, the wood peeler core waste has been burned in a boiler to generate heat for kiln dryers, and some are selling for agriculture poles. Since wood has become more expensive, converting this waste to a more valuable material is paramount. One of the potentials of the wood peeler core is to use dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) to generate renewable energy, particularly electricity. Although the power conversion efficiency of DSSC from wood waste ranges only from 0.29 to 0.58% and is far below the commercial silicon solar cells (about 19%), it is potential as a low-cost material for renewable energy cannot be underestimated.

14. Effects of Treatments on Eucalyptus Waste to Produce Cement Composites

    Matheus Roberto Cabral, Erika Yukari Nakanishi, Sérgio Francisco Santos, Juliano Fiorelli

    Abstract

    The reuse of waste has been widely used to optimize the performance of cementitious materials. However, several challenges associated with the composition of wood wastes in cement hydration have been pointed out. Therefore, this research investigated the effects of treatments on strand-type particles made from Eucalyptus waste to produce cement composites. Strands measuring 80 mm × 20 mm × 1 mm were produced from Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.) wastes obtained from the pallets industry. Four treatments were studied on the strands, i.e., untreated, cold water, hot water and NaOH. Physical, chemical and microstructural characterizations were performed to assess the effect of these treatments on the strands. The effect of the treatments on the cement hydration was evaluated by assessing the mechanical performance of wood-cement composites. Wettability tests showed that the strands had a surface with a hydrophobic performance except for the strands treated with NaOH. NaOH had the highest values of water absorption after 24 h (186%) while the lowest were those for untreated strands (91%). FTIR showed that the treatments reduced the cellulose and hemicellulose bands. In addition, a reduction in the bands referring to extractives for the treated strands was also identified. For the effects of the treatments on the mechanical properties of the wood-cement composites, it was found that the use of treatments resulted in lower mechanical properties in axial compression. The results for this study showed that the use of treatments does not improve the strand’s physical, chemical and morphological performance and also does not improve the mechanical properties of wood-cement composites. Our findings suggest that producing wood-cement with strands type particles does not require the raw materials treatment.

15. Microwave Treatment on Wood Waste Product-A Review

    Mohammad Farsi, Mohammad Jawaid, Amir Amini, Masoud Ebadi, Majid Shahbabaei

    Abstract

    This chapter presents an extensive review of the scientific literature associated with various microwave treatments on wood waste products. First, the basic concepts of microwave radiation and its applications in wood waste product fabrication are reviewed. Then, an extensive literature review of the most significant experimental research papers is provided, divided into two microwave heating treatment uses: wood drying and wood waste products performance improvement. Next, the post-treatment of wood-plastic composites (WPCs) by microwave irradiation as a case study was reviewed and a real example of WPCs samples was discussed. Finally, the chapter concludes with a proposal of doing future research studies concerning the impact of microwave technology on some important properties of wood waste products, i.e., resistance to biological agents, fire, environmental conditions, and so on.