“Ye Shall Know Them by Their Fruits”

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

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2. Introductory Considerations and Research Setting

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 1. Introduction

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      Why are Protestant societies more competitive and less corrupt than Roman Catholic ones? This book explains the hegemonic and emancipatory religious forces contributing to these disparities between 65 countries in Europe and the Americas. It argues that the uneven contributions of Roman Catholicism and Protestantism to prosperity are grounded in their different historical and institutional foundations and in the theologies that are pervasive in their countries of influence. This introduction establishes the historical context of the controversy and includes the aims, contributions, and shortcomings of this study.

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   3. Chapter 2. Research Setting

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      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      How does Protestantism influence competitiveness and transparency compared to Roman Catholicism in Europe and the Americas? This book answers the research question by applying a “Mixed Methods approach to Grounded Theory” (MM-GT). This chapter expands on the research aims, research question, hypotheses, and research model in this study. The research model synthesises understanding and serves as a rationale for the entire book. The model exhibits the main exogenous theoretical determinants of corruption and prosperity, which are tested empirically.

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3. Conceptual Framework

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 3. The Outcome (Criterion Variables)

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter characterises the outcome of the research model in this study (transparency/prosperity) in three sections. Sections 3.1 and 3.2, respectively, define corruption and competitiveness (prosperity) from different perspectives, including moral and theological. Transparency and prosperity are linked as part of the same outcome, prosperity equals competitiveness, and competitiveness includes transparency (Sect. 3.3.).

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   3. Chapter 4. Diagnosing Corruption and Prosperity in Europe and the Americas (A)

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      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter surveys prosperity and transparency in Europe and the Americas and shows, roughly, that historically Protestant countries perform higher than Roman Catholic ones. Sections 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3 diagnose prosperity in Europe and the Americas based on three indicators, respectively: Corruption (CPI), Social Progress (SPI), and Competitiveness (GCI).

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   4. Chapter 5. Conditions (Predictor Variables): Theories Explaining Prosperity Differences (B), (C), (D), (E)

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      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter defines the conditions elements of the research model in this study (Fig. 2.1). Therefore, Sects. 5.1–5.7 refer to some influential theories that have sought to explain differences in prosperity between countries from diverse disciplinary perspectives. Potential prosperity factors/theories can be clustered into three groups: (1) cultural and religious values; (2) institutions and economic growth; (3) environment and geography. Each of these distinct theories may contain “a grain of truth” about understanding prosperity imbalances between countries. Ideally, prosperity theories should be complementary instead of competing explanations. For example, geography and environmental theories explain how seasonal lands can provide a society and its economy better conditions to prosper. Institutional theory helps explain how institutions model social prosperity by perpetuating equality loops or by concentrating wealth. Cultural theory contributes to the understanding of the influence of cultural variables, such as religious beliefs and values, on prosperity. Yet, the relations among environment/geography, culture, institutions, and prosperity are highly complex and involve massive historical dynamics which would normally far exceed the scope of empirical research.

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4. Theoretical Foundations

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 6. Corruption and Religion (A), (B), (1)

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      Relevant empirical studies demonstrate robust associations between corruption and religion, mainly concluding that Protestantism curbs corruption, in contrast with Roman Catholicism, which tends to increase the perceived corruption. Hierarchical religions such as Islam, Roman Catholicism, and Orthodoxy have adverse effects on education and civic engagement, thus promoting corruption. In turn, Protestantism has led to better education and human capital, and profoundly influenced the rise and spread of stable democracy worldwide.

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   3. Chapter 7. Prosperity and Religion (A), (B), (1)

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      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter discusses the prosperity–religion link and reviews some prominent empirical studies refuting and confirming Weber’s thesis and balancing the evidence gathered. It also emphasises the importance of seriously considering the institutional (and hegemonic) influence of religion in addition to the cultural influence (of religious adherents). The historical institutional influence of religion has been the crucial factor with regard to prosperity/transparency (more than the current proportion of adherents).

      The relationships of prosperity vis-à-vis religion as a predictor (independent) variable (e.g. Weber) or as a criterion (dependent) variable (e.g. Marx) reinforce each other and produced a vast body of theories and empirical studies. In the first causal arrow, Weber’s explanations and findings in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism has attracted much criticism over the last century. The debate remains polarised.

      The second causal arrow (religion as a dependent variable vis-à-vis prosperity) resulted in, among others, secularisation theories focusing on either the supply or demand-side of religion. The theory of existential security is an influential model that empirically focuses on the variations of the demand-side and revises the secularisation theory.

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   4. Chapter 8. Institutions, Corruption/Prosperity, and Religion (A), (B), (D), (1), (3), (6)

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter characterises the relations between religion, institutions, and the transparency–prosperity nexus. It explains how economic prosperity, democracy, and transparency are part of a feedback loop that constitutes a single phenomenon. More importantly, this chapter deepens the institutional analysis by concentrating on the particular historical influence of religion on the different legal traditions in Europe and the Americas. It is the cornerstone of Part 3 and, as such, of the entire book.

      The Reformation brought forth a wide range of modern institutions. Among these, education and democracy are the most crucial ones for ensuring prosperity/transparency outcomes. Likewise, Protestantism has impacted the secularisation of the state in Protestant countries (and also in Roman Catholics, albeit to a lesser, more indirect extent). Protestantism fosters horizontal power relations and secular-rational attitudes towards authority. Thus, such egalitarian and secular attitudes are linked to greater transparency and prosperity.

      The Lutheran German Revolution formed the basis of the various later Protestant, dissenting revolutions and legal traditions (i.e. British and American). Some of its concepts (e.g. separation of state functions from the church; state-sponsored education) permeate all modern legal systems to this day and ended the monopoly of Roman canon law.

      Regardless of the advances made by Roman Catholicism in the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II: 1962–1965), corporatist ideologies remain prevalent, mostly in Latin America. But while Roman Catholic discourse has shifted, the institutional inertia persists and maintains the hierarchical status quo and longstanding feudal structures.

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   5. Chapter 9. Education, Religion, and Corruption/Prosperity (A), (B), (C), (1), (2)

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter demonstrates the influential association of Protestantism and prosperity by explaining its historical focus on education and human capital building.

      Historically (and statistically), one key mechanism driving prosperity/transparency has been the Protestant emphasis on literacy so as to promote reading and understanding the Bible among wider circles (Becker & Woessmann, 2009). This contrasted starkly with the Roman Catholic practice of reciting parts of the Gospel in Latin scholarly language to mostly illiterate peasants (Androne, 2014). The teaching of God’s Word in vernacular languages created linguistic and methodical skills (i.e. exegetical understanding) that proved valuable beyond the religious realm. This practice also led to the accumulation of human capital, and thereby opened and perpetuated an important educational (and hence prosperity) gap between Protestants and Roman Catholics over time.

      As part of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, the Jesuits have competed with Protestant education but attaching less importance to the Scriptures in their schooling. Some South American areas influenced by Jesuit missions exhibit 10–15% higher human capital and income than the surrounding Catholic populations. Yet, Jesuit instruction has been largely elitist and far less encompassing than Protestant educational coverage and accomplishment.

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   6. Chapter 10. Culture, Religion, and Corruption/Prosperity (A), (B), (C), (1), (2)

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter characterises the relations between culture, religion, and corruption/prosperity. It advances the explanations of the prosperity–religion nexus from the perspective of cultural attributes (e.g. trust, individualism, familialism) by comparing Roman Catholic and Protestant theologies.

      Protestant denominations have mostly relinquished their founding principles, while “Rome never changes” as per the Italian saying. Despite the progress after Vatican II, Roman Catholicism has not markedly altered its beliefs and practices or its institutional founding principles (i.e. Canon Law) since medieval times. The political repercussions of an ecumenism in “Rome terms” are beyond its theological or religious implications.

      Liberation theology urged the Latin American Roman Church to break away from its imperialist origins and favouritism for landlords, industrialists, and power elites. However, liberation theology never became the mainstream or hegemonic Catholic theology in Latin America.

      Distinct Protestant theologies and organisational forms have led to distinct outcomes. New forms of Protestantism (i.e. Pentecostalism) placing less emphasis on education are less likely to have a positive social impact than previous (historical) Protestant versions. Some Protestant denominations still adhere to intertextual historicist biblical interpretation and hold the belief that the papacy continues to be “Satan’s synagogue” today.

      The heavily criticised Prosperity Gospel (PG) movement has syncretic roots in Pentecostalism, New Thought, and African American religion, and is composed mainly of the middle classes and blacks.

      While syncretism has been a natural process in all religions, Jews and historical Protestants have tended to be more anti-syncretic given their Scriptural base of beliefs. In turn, the importance of traditions, in Roman Catholicism for instance, has led to include more non-orthodox rituals in its practice.

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   7. Chapter 11. Language and Religion

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter explores the influence of religion and hegemony on language by concentrating on English, German and the Romance languages widely spoken in Europe and the Americas.

      Bible translations have helped to keep alive native languages. German and English are associated with the Reformation and have thus been highly influenced by the Bible. In turn, Roman languages are associated with the status quo of the Roman Empire, i.e. Roman Church-State. The Roman Church-State condemned—and sought to impede—any effort to bring the Holy Scriptures within reach of common people, in order to prevent what happened in Germany and England. Thus, the influence of the Bible on Latin languages has been limited.

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   8. Chapter 12. Environment/Geography and Prosperity/Transparency (E), (4), (7)

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter discusses the influence of the environment and geography on prosperity and corruption and reviews some leading empirical works.

      A direct and robust empirical relationship exists between the environment/geography and the prosperity of nations. For instance, countries located in the inter-tropical or equatorial zone tend to be poorer than those located in temperate zones. Seasonal dynamics lead ecosystems and societies to accumulate and manage more resources, while equatorial species and people tend to consume the available resources immediately rather than storing, accumulating, and reinvesting the excess capital.

      An abundance of natural resources (i.e. fuels and minerals) tends to generate conditions for rent-seeking and corruption. Venezuela, Nigeria, or Arab countries are examples of countries located on the equator characterised by an abundance of natural resources and by high levels of corruption.

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5. Part IV

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 13. Applied Research Paradigms

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      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter discusses the research paradigms underpinning this study––i.e. dialectical pluralism (DP) (mixed methods research) and a complex thinking perspective. The chapter also explains the researcher’s scientific and personal paradigm biases and details some strategies utilised for objective data treatment.

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   3. Chapter 14. Methodology

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This study applied a comprehensive methodological framework consisting of different epistemological approaches (Mixed Methods). The correlational (quantitative) part established the interrelations between the investigated variables, while the Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) further inferred causal relations for 65 countries in Europe and the Americas. The qualitative part used Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to examine four case studies (Switzerland, Uruguay, Cuba, and Colombia).

      The regression analysis of this study quantitatively explores the relations among factors/variables (macro). QCA adds causality considerations and bridges quantitative relations and qualitative analysis (meso). The four case studies are purely qualitative (micro).

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6. Part V

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 15. Component 1 (Macro): Quantitative (Regression) Analysis

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter corresponds to the macro-quantitative component. It discusses how competitiveness and corruption were modelled, how the methods were applied in the correlation analysis and which empirical results were achieved.

      Regression analysis is used to test the relationship between variables of some prominent prosperity/corruption theories. This part does not seek to prove causation, but instead empirically explores whether competitiveness/transparency are related to indicators such as state religion or a population’s religious affiliation.

      Consistent results of the models on competitiveness (GCI) are: (1) a positive influence of EPI on GCI; (2) a positive influence of a German legal origin (or German language) on GCI; (3) a negative influence of an Orthodox population on GCI; and (4) a negative influence of a Roman Catholic population (or Roman Catholic State Religion) on GCI. These results are also consistent with the predictions in the theory chapters (Chaps. 6–11).

      The corruption model applied here tests the interrelations between GDP, political liberties (democracy proxy), and language and ethnic fractionalisation. The results of the models on corruption are entirely compatible with theory. The results confirm my hypothesis that transparency levels are directly (i.e. positively) related to the proportion of Protestants in countries in Europe and the Americas.

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   3. Chapter 16. Component 2 (Meso): Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA)

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter contains the meso component (Qualitative Comparative Analysis, QCA). It discusses the QCA research model, the QCA methodology, and the analysis of the QCA results.

      QCA is used to analyse both quantitative and qualitative data, thus enabling causal inferences. However, QCA is not a statistical technique that focuses on the likelihood of the relations among variables. Instead, it is a method based on Boolean logic, rooted in set theory, and founded on the notions of sufficiency, the necessity of conditions, and conjunctural causation.

      QCA results indicate, among others, that for high competitiveness, high EPI suffices if Concordats with the Vatican are low and if the Roman Catholic and Orthodox population is low. No State Religion positively affects competitiveness. Having Concordats with the Vatican negatively influences competitiveness. Additionally, factors like German, English, and Scandinavian legal origin help to increase competitiveness.

      Oppositely, QCA results for high corruption indicate that Concordats in combination with Roman Catholic religion adherence increase corruption. Orthodox religion has a similar negative effect. Most countries with high corruption are of French legal origin and have high Concordats. This trend is robust.

      Colombia and Switzerland (the two extreme cases) exhibited several consistent QCA results. The other two cases (Cuba and Uruguay) only revealed one or two consistent outcomes.

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7. Part VI

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 17. Case Selection Criteria, Methods, and Data Treatment

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter examines the criteria for selecting the cases analysed in this study. It explains the application of critical discourse analysis (CDA) as its principal empirical method. It discusses CDA methods and data treatment as well as the empirical analysis of CDA results. Finally, it compares and summarises the case selection criteria.

      Four countries were compared: Switzerland, Uruguay, Cuba, and Colombia. These cases are also linked to the correlated variables in the quantitative model and to the sufficient conditions in the QCA. Cases were selected based on the “extreme case method”.

      Each of the selected countries serves as a proxy of a larger group of countries (Latin American Strong Catholic, Secular, Communism, Protestant or mixed Old World.).

      Critical discourse analysis (CDA) and religion constitute the qualitative method (micro-component). Sixty semi-structured interviews were conducted and analysed using memos and open coding.

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   3. Chapter 18. a) Switzerland: Extreme Positive Case Study (Worldwide)

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      Historically, Switzerland’s population and cantonal system have been characterised by mixed denominational distribution (Roman Catholics and Protestants). Even if the two main denominations have not always coexisted harmoniously, and despite internal differences, Switzerland is nowadays the most competitive (prosperous) country worldwide with well-recognised political, economic, and social stability.

      The Swiss case explored the nexuses of prosperity and of a religiously mixed society in which the Protestant Reformation played a prominent historical role in shaping federal institutions. Following the 1848 anti-clerical Constitution, many Conservative Catholics remained in mountainous and rural areas, in an attempt to keep the ancient order. The Catholic ancient order included maintaining the pervasive influence of the Roman Church-State on virtually every moral and social aspect, including education (i.e. the “maintenance of ignorance”). In turn, liberals and Protestants mostly remained in flat areas that were subsequently industrialised. Currently, the historical Protestant cantons tend to be the most competitive, and the mountainous Roman Catholic cantons the least competitive, in the Swiss Confederation. Historically mixed confessional cantons (e.g. Thurgau and St. Gallen) perform in the middle of the cantonal ranking of competitiveness (11th and 13th, respectively, out of 26 cantons). Protestantism in Switzerland may have also contributed to prosperity via democratisation, state secularism and the creation of trust and moral standards. Yet, the influence of Protestantism owes more to its accumulated historical impact on institutions than to the proportion of current followers.

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   4. Chapter 19. b) Uruguay: Extreme Positive Case Study (Latin America)

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      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      Secularisation and religiosity in Uruguay are closer to Western European levels than to Latin American averages. The idea of medieval “Christendom” inherited from Hispanic times became obsolete and residual in Uruguay already during the nineteenth century (which is early compared to the rest of Latin America).

      Uruguay closely followed the laïcité model of the French Revolution without ever completely replicating it. This process resulted in the widespread secularisation of institutional fields, displaced religion to the domestic sphere, and guaranteed the freedom of consciousness and religion.

      In Uruguay, as well as in Switzerland, Protestantism has played a crucial role along with liberalism in introducing anti-clericalism (and religious freedom) in its constitution and therefore also in its institutions. Protestantism, then, has played a decisive role in shaping the trajectory of democracy, human capital, ethics, transparency, secularisation, and social progress.

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   5. Chapter 20. c) Cuba: A Sui Generis Case Study (Communist Proxy)

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      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      The anti-clerical elements of the Revolution helped Cuba succeed in various indicators (e.g. education quality and coverage, equality, health). The Cuban regime seized, dismantled, and limited the institutional influence of Roman Catholicism on these areas of public life. However, a strong cultural influence of a highly syncretised Roman Catholicism persists in Cuba even if its institutional influence has been curbed. Also, the Communist regime, by adopting Marxism, “threw the baby out with the bathwater” through persecuting all types of religion, including Protestant liberals. Finally, the Cuban regime conveniently turned to Rome to legitimise itself after the collapse of the Soviet Union and to silence Protestantism with a corporatist strategy. The socialist legal tradition had an effect opposite to its claims (e.g. lack of freedom, corruption), even if its anti-clerical element was an advantage. Comparing the Cuban experience to other Latin American countries with leftist dictatorships (e.g. Venezuela) helps understand their failure to achieve the Cuban indicators (e.g. education). The crucial factor in this regard is whether or not the power and influence of the Roman Church-State are reduced.

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   6. Chapter 21. d) Colombia: Extreme Negative Case Study

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      The vital role of Roman Catholicism in establishing the social, political, institutional, and religious status quo in Colombia is plainly evident and well-documented. Since the Middle Ages, no other country has enforced such a complete integration of church and state (ideal medieval Christendom), as reflected in Colombia’s Concordat. In Colombia, liberal attempts failed repeatedly and resulted in violent conflicts in which the Roman Catholic Church-State closed ranks with conservatives and imposed a corporatist medieval-like state. The largely successful project pursued by the Roman Church-State in Colombia (so-called Christilandia) consists of three pillars: (1) political (a confessional state); (2) economic (a corporatist state); and (3) cultural (a Catholic and conservative “Hispanicism”).

      In the 1991 Constitution, Protestantism allied itself with liberal forces. This alliance made it possible to finally introduce religious freedom, among others, by removing most of the contentious articles from the Concordat (nevertheless, the Concordat remains valid, as does institutional corporatism). In spite of these reforms, the Colombian government is still required to pay a fee to the Roman See. Religious instruction in public schools according to the Roman Church Magisterium for Catholics also remains firmly in place. Colombia remains one of the most inequitable and dangerous countries in the world.

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   7. Chapter 22. Summary Overview of the Four Case Studies

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter presents a brief comparative summary overview of the four cases.

      In Switzerland, most conservative Catholics escaped modernisation and centralism by relocating to the mountains, while Liberals and Protestants mostly remained in flat areas that became industrialised (Obinger, 2009). The federal government has been mainly liberal (anti-clerical) and close to Protestantism. Likewise, the Protestant population was in the majority until the 1970s. Currently, the Protestant cantons are the most competitive, while the mountainous Roman Catholic cantons are the least competitive.

      Uruguay exhibits the highest levels of social progress in Latin America (Sect. 4.2) as well as high safety. Along with Chile, it is the only country in Latin America with low perceptions of corruption. Further, Uruguay is by far Latin America’s most secular country with the lowest religiosity and lowest proportion of Roman Catholics on the continent. The Roman Catholic Church-State did not significantly establish itself in Uruguay, unlike in most Latin American countries. After gaining independence in 1828, Uruguay continued a secular direction with the recognition of civil unions in 1837. In 1917, the Uruguayan constitution completely separated church and state.

      Cuba ranks in the middle of world distribution on the transparency index. Compared to the cases studied (Europe and the Americas), the countries clustering with Cuba exhibit moderate to high corruption due to their Socialist Legal Origin.

      Colombia is one of the most inequitable and dangerous countries in the world. A “Catholic and conservative hegemony” has existed in Colombia until 1991, when the Constitution of Rights was promulgated and religious pluralism became legally recognised. However, as a result of centuries of hegemony, the Roman Catholic Church-State still enjoys ample privileges with the Colombian state.

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8. Discussion and Conclusions

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 23. Integrative Conclusions

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter presents general conclusions based on integrating the theory and the results obtained from all methods. It also offers seven specific conclusions for each of the prosperity determinants considered.

      Combining three main factors accounted for uneven socio-economic and institutional performance in Europe and the Americas. These factors are: 1. Religion: 1.1) Historical Protestantism and its positive influence on law, institutions, and language (highest performance); 1.2) anti-clericalism (medium-high performance); 1.3) Roman Catholicism or Orthodoxy (medium-low performance); 1.4) Syncretism (low performance). 2. Political non-religious influences: 2.1) Communism (low performance). 3. Geography and environment, which modulate overall performance.

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   3. Chapter 24. Other Considerations

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      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter examines further considerations derived from the research.

      Institutional factors related to religion exert a stronger structural and long-term influence on prosperity (competitiveness and corruption) than the cultural influence of religion (adherents).

      Prosperity and educational differences between Protestants (higher) and Roman Catholics (lower) are still evident in Germany and Switzerland. Such differences are even more prominent comparing national levels (cross-country) throughout Europe and the Americas.

      Thousands of years of hegemony characterise the Roman Catholic Church as a global political-religious institution. The associated corruption in all the countries under its influence may well be related to the corrupt fruits for which “we shall know them” in the parable of Jesus (King James Bible, 1769, Matthew 7:15–23). Among others, these fruits have also been the abuse scandals, maintenance of ignorance, and persecution of God’s Word, in the name of Jesus Christ.

      The results of this study open up various avenues for future research. The QCA evidence generated here allows further analysis of every country in Europe and the Americas. Future research might also continue to apply the vast amount of information collected and already codified in this study.

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   4. Chapter 25. Concluding Remarks

      • Open Access

      Jason García Portilla

      Abstract

      This chapter provides some brief concluding remarks.

      This study contributes to existing research in the sociology of religion and development studies fields by demonstrating the effect of the mutually reinforcing configuration of multiple prosperity triggers (religion–political–environment). Historical Protestantism largely influenced prosperity by promoting education, by secularising institutions, and by stabilising democracy. Protestantism has also proven highly influential in the successive historical law revolutions that gradually mitigated the power of pervasive feudal institutions and of papalist medieval canon law. In contrast, traditionally Roman Catholic countries have generally upheld a medieval model of extractivist institutions until anti-clerical (non-communist) movements were able to weaken this influence in some countries.

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9. Backmatter

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