Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Volume 227

At a global scale, increasing human population and associated economic growth has lead to an increase in the demand for consumable goods such as those made from polymer-based materials (PBMs) (i.e., plastics and elastomers). During their lifecycle PBMs can be released into the environment from a variety of sources. Once in the environment, PBMs are exposed to a variety of mechanical and chemical weathering processes. This causes a change to the PBM structure and facilitates the disintegration of the PBM into increasingly smaller fragments (Andrady 2011). Furthermore these materials are now thought to be contributing to the build-up of chemicals in the environment via the leaching of chemical additives that are used in the manufacturing process (Erren et al. 2009). The majority of physical effects data regarding bulk PBM items identifies them as presenting a hazard to mammals and birds as they can become entangled and/or mistake PBMs as a food source (Derraik 2002). The majority of ecotoxicity data regarding PBM additives has focused on the effects of compounds that are generally referred to as having endocrine disruptive potential, such as the phthalates (Oehlmann et al. 2009). However, receiving environments are potentially exposed to a combination of both these physical and chemical components, as well as substances produced during degradation processes. Therefore, PBMs and their associated degradation products may compromise the viability of organisms at all trophic levels. At the base of the food chain primary producers may be more sensitive to substances that have a biological action. Nonselective and filter-feeding consumers could be susceptible to ingesting both bulk PBMs and fragmented particles, leading to the potential passage up the food chain to secondary and tertiary consumers. Despite this concern, PBMs are regarded under REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) as representing a low environmental concern because of their high molecular weight (ECHA 2012). However, the occurrence of PBMs and their associated chemical additives in the aquatic environment have been recognized as an emerging worldwide problem, and their impacts are now gaining a wider scientific and social audience (Hammer et al. 2012; Thompson et al. 2009).

Addictive substance use is most prevalent in people who are of reproductive-age. In a national prevalence survey performed among pregnant women aged 15–44 years, 10.8 % reported using alcohol, 17 % reported smoking during pregnancy, and 4.4 % reported abusing one or more illicit substances (Fig. 1) (SAMHSA 2011). Substance abuse for a pregnant woman is twice as dangerous as for others, because:

The introduction of toxic substances into the environment by anthropogenic or natural activities is widespread and causes significant perturbation. Therefore, increasing attention has been focused on better understanding the long-term ecological effects of chronically exposed populations, communities, and ecosystems. The increased understanding of such effects has resulted not only from enhanced biomonitoring activities but also from developing new toxicity and ecotoxicity data for various species.

Bioaccumulation describes the process by which anthropogenic chemicals are taken up by organisms from their environment and diet and are subsequently assimilated and distributed into tissues (Arnot and Gobas 2003; Borgå et al. 2004; Mackay and Fraser 2000). Thus, bioaccumulation is a central framework within ecotoxicology, because it helps define the maximum concentration that can be achieved by an organism in its tissues, relative to the exposure media, and helps determine the potential chemical dose/toxicity experienced by an individual. Therefore, understanding the dynamic processes that regulate chemical bioaccumulation in animals is essential for protecting species, ecosystems, and ultimately human health (Arnot and Gobas 2004; Kelly et al. 2004).