1 Introduction
1.1 Attitudes Toward Social Robots
1.2 Anxiety About Social Robots
1.3 Trust in Social Robots
1.4 Acceptance of Social Robots
2 What Factors Influence People’s Attitudes Toward Robots?
2.1 Type of Exposure to Robots
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No HRI Participants were not asked to interact, view, or imagine a social robot or robots (e.g., participants were only asked about their attitudes toward social robots in general; [37]);
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Indirect HRI Participants observed a direct interaction or were shown (or asked to imagine) a representation of the social robot or robots (e.g., participants read an illustrated description of a NAO robot; [38]);
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Direct HRI Participants interacted with a social robot that was physically present at the same time and place as them (e.g., participants took part in a mock-interview with a Geminoid HI-2 robot; [39]).
2.2 Domain of Application
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Companion Robotics and Domestic Assistance Robots designed specifically and exclusively to interact socially with humans for a prolonged period of time and to provide companionship (e.g., a study investigates attitudes towards the robots NAO and Darwin; [42]); or robots that are designed to help with domestic chores, as well as provide social interaction (e.g., a study investigating the evaluation of a socially assistive robot in a smart home setting; [43]);
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Education Robots Designed to assist educators with teaching and social interaction with students (e.g., a study investigating how students evaluate the use of NAO to teach English lessons; [44]).
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Healthcare Robots designed to help patients, doctors or healthcare providers (e.g., a study investigating the attitudes and preferences of staff, residents, and relatives of residents in a retirement village towards a health-care robot; [2]).
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Paediatric Care Robots that are used in healthcare but specifically designed to assist children and the healthcare providers who treat them (e.g., an evaluation of physiotherapists’ acceptance of assistive robots as a therapeutic aid for children in rehabilitation; [45]).
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HRI Robots that are designed primarily to interact with people, with any additional functionality (e.g., providing care) being secondary. For example, playing games or having a conversation (e.g., a study examining the effect of group size on people’s attitudes and behaviours toward robots as interaction partners; [46]).
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General Application The study does not specify or imply an application domain for the robot or robots being investigated. (e.g., a study investigating the effectiveness of exhibitions of robots as a means of shaping people’s beliefs about robots; [47]).
2.3 Design of Robot
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Humanoid A robot that resembles a human body (e.g., the humanoid robot NAO; [49]).
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Anthropomorphic A robot that imitates some parts of the human body and can be subject to anthropomorphisation by the user (e.g., a robot with a human-like face; [50]).
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Non-humanoid A robot that resembles any other living organism except for a human or does not imitate a living organism (e.g., Aibo, a robot that resembles a dog; [51]).
2.4 Geographical Location
2.5 Sample Characteristics
3 The Present Review
4 Method
4.1 Systematic Literature Search
4.2 Screening and Selection of Relevant Papers
4.3 Data Extraction
4.4 Calculating and Interpreting Rescaled and “Standardised” Outcomes
4.5 Calculating and Interpreting Weighted Means, Standard Error, and 95% Confidence Intervals
Affective attitudes | Cognitive attitudes | General attitudes | |||||||||||||
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\( \bar{x}_{m} \) | \( s_{{\bar{x}_{m} }} \) | N | k | \( 95\% CI_{{\bar{x}_{m} }} \) [LL, UL] | \( \bar{x}_{m} \) | \( s_{{\bar{x}_{m} }} \) | N | k | \( 95\% CI_{{\bar{x}_{m} }} \) [LL, UL] | \( \bar{x}_{m} \) | \( s_{{\bar{x}_{m} }} \) | N | k | \( 95\% CI_{{\bar{x}_{m} }} \) [LL, UL] | |
Type of HRI | |||||||||||||||
No HRI | 0.40 | 0.08 | 4544 | 13 | [0.35, 0.44] | 0.35 | 0.09 | 4535 | 11 | [0.29, 0.41] | − 0.10 | 0.04 | 1854 | 6 | [− 0.14, − 0.05] |
Indirect HRI | 0.09 | 0.16 | 1063 | 7 | [− 0.05, 0.24] | 0.37 | 0.26 | 558 | 4 | [− 0.05, 0.78] | 0.22 | 0.06 | 1544 | 8 | [0.16, 0.27] |
Direct HRI | 0.34 | 0.05 | 1807 | 26 | [0.32, 0.36] | − 0.13 | 0.08 | 1192 | 12 | [− 0.19, − 0.08] | − 0.14 | 0.09 | 838 | 8 | [− 0.22, − 0.07] |
Area of robot application | |||||||||||||||
Companionship and domestic | 0.45 | 0.13 | 703 | 4 | [0.23, 0.66] | – | – | 674 | 2 | – | – | – | 384 | 2 | – |
Education | 0.23 | 0.21 | 832 | 4 | [− 0.11, 0.57] | 0.59 | 0.12 | 652 | 3 | [0.28, 0.90] | – | – | 375 | 2 | – |
General application | 0.13 | 0.07 | 4171 | 15 | [0.09, 0.17] | 0.07 | 0.08 | 4160 | 10 | [0.02, 0.13] | − 0.09 | 0.11 | 2389 | 7 | [− 0.20, 0.01] |
Healthcare | 0.58 | 0.07 | 563 | 7 | [0.51, 0.65] | 0.09 | 0.25 | 282 | 4 | [− 0.30, 0.48] | − 0.02 | 0.04 | 660 | 6 | [− 0.06, 0.02] |
HRI | 0.34 | 0.07 | 1351 | 22 | [0.31, 0.37] | 0.12 | 0.11 | 845 | 10 | [0.04, 0.20] | − 0.06 | 0.14 | 562 | 7 | [− 0.19, 0.06] |
Paediatric care | 0.36 | 0.30 | 235 | 3 | [− 0.37, 1.10] | – | – | 188 | 2 | – | – | – | 172 | 1 | – |
Design of robot | |||||||||||||||
Anthropomorphic | 0.24 | 0.17 | 286 | 6 | [0.07, 0.42] | 0.24 | 0.24 | 141 | 3 | [− 0.36, 0.84] | – | – | 57 | 1 | – |
Humanoid | 0.34 | 0.05 | 1253 | 26 | [0.32, 0.35] | 0.10 | 0.07 | 1040 | 15 | [0.06, 0.13] | − 0.18 | 0.09 | 625 | 9 | [− 0.25, − 0.11] |
Non-humanoid | 0.33 | 0.17 | 856 | 5 | [0.11, 0.55] | – | – | 467 | 1 | – | – | – | 41 | 1 | – |
Geographical location | |||||||||||||||
Australia | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
France | 0.58 | 0.12 | 232 | 3 | [0.28, 0.88] | 0.35 | 0.11 | 313 | 5 | [0.21, 0.48] | – | – | – | – | – |
Germany | 0.22 | 0.12 | 668 | 10 | [0.13, 0.30] | – | – | 145 | 2 | – | 0.04 | 0.19 | 532 | 3 | [− 0.44, 0.52] |
Italy | 0.57 | 0.17 | 156 | 5 | [0.36, 0.79] | – | – | 80 | 1 | – | – | – | 18 | 1 | – |
Japan | 0.21 | 0.13 | 1613 | 8 | [0.10, 0.31] | 0.05 | 0.07 | 1331 | 5 | [− 0.04, 0.14] | – | – | – | – | – |
Netherlands | 0.31 | 0.18 | 327 | 3 | [− 0.13, 0.74] | 0.01 | 0.26 | 327 | 3 | [− 0.64, 0.65] | − 0.09 | 0.10 | 386 | 3 | [− 0.35, 0.17] |
New Zealand | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.23 | 0.07 | 220 | 3 | [0.07, 0.40] |
South Korea | 0.43 | 0.21 | 350 | 3 | [− 0.08, 0.95] | – | – | 270 | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Taiwan | – | – | 226 | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 578 | 2 | – |
USA | 0.05 | 0.19 | 979 | 5 | [− 0.19, 0.29] | 0.04 | 0.28 | 961 | 3 | [− 0.66, 0.74] | − 0.10 | 0.04 | 2400 | 10 | [− 0.13, − 0.07] |
Acceptance | Anxiety | Trust | |||||||||||||
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\( \bar{x}_{m} \) | \( s_{{\bar{x}_{m} }} \) | N | k | \( 95\% CI_{{\bar{x}_{m} }} \) [LL, UL] | \( \bar{x}_{m} \) | \( s_{{\bar{x}_{m} }} \) | N | k | \( 95\% CI_{{\bar{x}_{m} }} \) [LL, UL] | \( \bar{x}_{m} \) | \( s_{{\bar{x}_{m} }} \) | N | k | \( 95\% CI_{{\bar{x}_{m} }} \) [LL, UL] | |
Type of HRI | |||||||||||||||
No HRI | 0.42 | 0.20 | 2168 | 4 | [0.10, 0.74] | 0.10 | 0.20 | 933 | 4 | [− 0.22, 0.41] | – | – | 24 | 1 | – |
Indirect HRI | − 0.14 | 0.20 | 608 | 6 | [− 0.35, 0.08] | 0.03 | 0.19 | 394 | 4 | [− 0.27, 0.33] | − 0.06 | 0.15 | 574 | 6 | [− 0.22, 0.09] |
Direct HRI | 0.03 | 0.15 | 671 | 10 | [− 0.08, 0.14] | 0.65 | 0.08 | 314 | 9 | [0.59, 0.71] | 0.18 | 0.06 | 895 | 20 | [0.16, 0.21] |
Area of robot application | |||||||||||||||
Companionship and domestic | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | 215 | 2 | – | – | – | 29 | 2 | – |
Education | 0.35 | 0.02 | 1152 | 4 | [0.32, 0.38] | 0.34 | 0.14 | 543 | 3 | [− 0.02, 0.69] | – | – | 18 | 1 | – |
General application | 0.07 | 0.19 | 1526 | 6 | [− 0.13, 0.27] | – | – | 2 | 1 | – | − 0.04 | 0.08 | 282 | 6 | [− 0.13, 0.04] |
Healthcare | 0.02 | 0.28 | 260 | 4 | [− 0.42, 0.46] | 0.36 | 0.22 | 100 | 4 | [0.01, 0.71] | 0.09 | 0.16 | 256 | 5 | [− 0.11, 0.29] |
HRI | − 0.02 | 0.15 | 913 | 8 | [− 0.15, 0.10] | 0.05 | 0.13 | 760 | 8 | [− 0.05, 0.16] | 0.32 | 0.08 | 884 | 13 | [0.27, 0.37] |
Paediatric care | – | – | 88 | 2 | – | – | – | 80 | 1 | – | – | – | 88 | 2 | – |
Design of robot | |||||||||||||||
Anthropomorphic | − 0.08 | 0.30 | 195 | 3 | [− 0.83, 0.67] | 0.26 | 0.19 | 153 | 4 | [− 0.03, 0.56] | 0.25 | 0.14 | 327 | 6 | [0.10, 0.40] |
Humanoid | 0.34 | 0.02 | 1037 | 12 | [0.33, 0.35] | 0.62 | 0.07 | 571 | 10 | [0.57, 0.67] | 0.14 | 0.06 | 919 | 18 | [0.11, 0.17] |
Non-humanoid | – | – | 182 | 2 | – | – | – | 83 | 2 | – | – | – | 150 | 2 | – |
Geographical location | |||||||||||||||
Australia | – | – | 8 | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.11 | 0.23 | 108 | 3 | [− 0.45, 0.67] |
France | – | – | 36 | 2 | – | – | – | 11 | 1 | – | – | – | 60 | 2 | – |
Germany | 0.03 | 0.16 | 967 | 8 | [− 0.11, 0.17] | 0.04 | 0.18 | 712 | 4 | [− 0.24, 0.32] | 0.31 | 0.22 | 106 | 3 | [− 0.25, 0.87] |
Italy | – | – | 80 | 1 | – | 0.57 | 0.22 | 123 | 3 | [0.02, 1.12] | – | – | 103 | 2 | – |
Japan | – | – | 24 | 1 | – | − 0.01 | 0.20 | 376 | 3 | [− 0.52, 0.50] | – | – | 87 | 1 | – |
Netherlands | – | – | 60 | 1 | – | 0.03 | 0.23 | 327 | 3 | [− 0.53, 0.59] | – | – | 237 | 2 | – |
New Zealand | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
South Korea | – | – | 290 | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 60 | 1 | – |
Taiwan | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
USA | – | – | 177 | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | − 0.08 | 0.08 | 130 | 5 | [− 0.18, 0.03] |