Nineteenth Century Black and Mixed-Race Physical Activity, Calories, and Life Expectancy: Nutrition, Sanitation, or Medical Intervention?

Mifflin et al. 1990, p. 246. Calorie equations from height and weight were first proposed in 1919 with the Harris-Benedict equations. Harris-Benedict equations for males are BMR_Males = 66.5 + 13.75weight(kg) + 5.003height(cms)-6.775Age. Harris-Benedict equations for women are BMR_Females = 655.1 + 9.563weight(kg) + 1.85height(cms)-4.676Age.

Mifflin et al. p. 246, equations 7 and 8.

Floud et al. (2011, p. 314) find that average calories were 3040 cal per day, and average calories from prison records are 2989 cal. The difference between these estimated prison calories are one sixth of a cup of oatmeal.

For example, Floud et al. (2011, p. 314) estimate that nineteenth century calories per day were 2974. Mifflin et al. equations are also robust across race, and to date, no studies demonstrate that significant errors exist for the Mifflin et al. equations across US ethnic groups (Frankenfield et al. 2005, p. 786).

Resting survival calories are about 127% of BMRs (Floud et al. 2011, p. 43); however, because such a diet measures calories only a survival diet, it does not account for physical activity, such as work, leisure, and household production. Various studies classify physical activity levels into sedentary, lightly active, moderately active, very active, and extra active Jette et al. (1990).

The white collar BMR is multiplied by 1.8455; skilled worker BMRs are multiplied by 1.8525; unskilled worker BMRs are multiplied by 1.8811; workers with no occupation BMRs are multiplied by 1.8781. Various studies classify physical activity levels into sedentary, lightly active, moderately active, very active, and extra active Jette et al. (1990). For sedentary individuals, calories are attained by multiplying BMR by 1.200; for lightly active individuals, BMR is multiplied by 1.375; for moderately active individuals, BMR is multiplied by 1.550; for very active individuals, BMR is multiplied by 1.725; for extra active individuals, BMR is multiplied by 1.900 (Mifflin et al., 1990 Rashad-Kelly 2006, p. 278; Pellet 2000, p. 897). Together, BMI, BMR, and energy accounting provide new insights into nineteenth century biological conditions, and instead of relying on only height and BMIs—two measures that provide little information about the physical activity required to maintain physical dimensions—BMRs provide reliable approximations for physical activity levels, and energy accounting provides the calories necessary to maintain health. Recent evidence also suggests it is difficult to judge the adequacy of historical diets using modern standards because infectious diseases are significant and may underestimate nutrients consumed by 10% (Floud et al. 2011, p. 162).

Arbitrarily truncating shorter individuals may underestimate BMIs, because taller statures are associated with lower average BMIs (Carson, 2009b). Therefore, the prison data give a more consistent depiction of a non-truncated BMI distribution.

BMR and calorie distributions are less skewed than income and health distributions because the tails of the BMR and calorie distributions are restricted to threshold environments for survival in the left tail and limited capacity to use energy in the right ( Floud et al. 2011, p. 50).

These nineteenth century male equivalents also received 62 g of protein per day.

Sutch (1976, p. 259-265) indicates Fogel and Engerman’s estimates are 4185 per day (Fogel and Engerman 1974, p. 112). However, Sutch’s calorie correction for Fogel and Engerman indicates the Fogel and Engerman estimates are overstated because they understate the quantity of corn fed to slaves and overstate the amount of corn fed to animals on the farm. They also overlook wheat and small grain’s contribution when calculating corn requirements to livestock and meat from animals. Sutch re-estimates Fogel and Engerman’s values and finds that slave diets are lower at 3976 cal per day.

The coefficient vector θ is obtained using techniques presented in Koenker and Bassett (1982) and Hendricks and Koenker (1992).

Not all state prisons collected weight; therefore, BMR and calories from states that did not gather weight are excluded.