Fabius Steinberger
ABSTRACT
Low levels of engagement while driving can pose road safety risks, e.g., inattention during low traffic or routine trips. Interactive technologies that increase task engagement could therefore offer safety benefits, e.g., through performance feedback, increased challenge, and incentives. As a means to build upon these notions, we chose to explore gamification of the driving task. The research aim was to study how to design gamified applications that make safe driving more engaging. We present six design lenses which bring into focus considerations most relevant to creating engaging car applications. A user study enhanced our understanding of design requirements and revealed user personas to support the development of such applications. These lenses and personas informed two prototypes, which we evaluated in driving simulator studies. Our results indicate that the gamified conditions increased driver engagement and reduced driving speeds. As such, our work contributes towards the design of engaging applications that are both appropriate to the safety-critical driving context and compelling to users.
Supplemental Material
- L. Andreone, A. Amditis, E. Deregibus, and S. Damiani. 2005. Beyond context-awareness: drivervehicle-environment adaptivity. From the COMUNICAR Project to the AIDE concept. 16th IFAC WORLD.Google Scholar
- Andrés Francisco Aparicio, Francisco Luis Gutiérrez Vela, José Luis González Sánchez, and José Luis Isla Montes. 2012. Analysis and application of gamification. In Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Interacción Persona-Ordenador, 17. Google ScholarDigital Library
- A Stevens, A Quimby, A Board, T Kersloot, P Burns. 2004. Design Guidelines for Safety of In-Vehicle Information Systems. TRL Limited.Google Scholar
- Aaron Bangor, Philip T. Kortum, and James T. Miller. 2008. An Empirical Evaluation of the System Usability Scale. International journal of human-computer interaction 24, 6: 574--594. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Donna Bonde. 2013. Qualitative Interviews: When enough is enough. Research by Design. Retrieved from http://www.researchbydesign.com.au/media/RBDWhitePaper-Margin-of-Error.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Jeffrey E. Brand, Pascaline Lorentz, and Trishita Mathew. 2014. Digital Australia 2014 (DA14). Bond University for the Interactive Games & Entertainment Association.Google Scholar
- John Brooke and Others. 1996. SUS-A quick and dirty usability scale. Usability evaluation in industry 189, 194: 4--7.Google Scholar
- B. Buxton. 2010. Sketching User Experiences: Getting the Design Right and the Right Design. Elsevier Science.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Stephen M. Casner, Edwin L. Hutchins, and Don Norman. 2016. The Challenges of Partially Automated Driving. Communications of the ACM 59, 5: 70--77.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Neelima Chohan. 2015. Young drivers ignore dangerous phone warning. HeraldSun. Retrieved 9 September 2015 from http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/victoria/youngdrivers-ignore-dangerous-phone-warning/storyfni0fit3--1227339646687Google Scholar
- M. Csikszentmihalyi. 1997. Finding Flow: The Psychology of Engagement with Everyday Life. BasicBooks.Google Scholar
- Edward L. Deci, Robert J. Vallerand, Luc G. Pelletier, and Richard M. Ryan. 1991. Motivation and Education: The Self-Determination Perspective. Educational psychologist 26, 3--4: 325--346.Google Scholar
- E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan. 2012. Motivation, personality, and development within embedded social contexts: An overview of self-determination theory. The Oxford handbook of human motivation.Google Scholar
- S. Deterding, D. Dixon, R. Khaled, and L. Nacke. 2011. From game design elements to gamefulness: defining gamification. In MindTrek '11 Proceedings of the 15th International Academic MindTrek Conference: Envisioning Future Media Environments. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Stefan Diewald, Andreas Möller, Luis Roalter, Tobias Stockinger, and Matthias Kranz. 2013. Gameful Design in the Automotive Domain: Review, Outlook and Challenges. In Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, 262--265. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Amos Drory. 1982. Individual differences in boredom proneness and task effectiveness at work. Personnel psychology 35, 1: 141--151. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Ronald Ecker, Philipp Holzer, Verena Broy, and Andreas Butz. 2011. EcoChallenge: a race for efficiency. In Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Human Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services, 91--94. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Shelley A. Fahlman, Kimberley B. Mercer-Lynn, David B. Flora, and John D. Eastwood. 2013. Development and validation of the multidimensional state boredom scale. Assessment 20, 1: 68--85. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Stephen H. Fairclough, Liverpool John Moores, Katie C. Ewing, Liverpool John Moores, Jenna Roberts, and Liverpool John Moores. 2009. Measuring task engagement as an input to physiological computing. In Proc. of Int. Conf. on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction, 1--9. Google ScholarCross Ref
- J. L. Gabbard, G. M. Fitch, and Hyungil Kim. 2014. Behind the Glass: Driver Challenges and Opportunities for AR Automotive Applications. Proceedings of the IEEE 102, 2: 124--136. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Saul Greenberg, Sheelagh Carpendale, Nicolai Marquardt, and Bill Buxton. 2011. Sketching user experiences: The workbook. Elsevier.Google ScholarDigital Library
- J. Hamari, J. Koivisto, and H. Sarsa. 2014. Does Gamification Work? -- A Literature Review of Empirical Studies on Gamification. In 2014 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 3025--3034.Google Scholar
- Juho Hamari, Jonna Koivisto, and Tuomas Pakkanen. 2014. Do Persuasive Technologies Persuade? - A Review of Empirical Studies. In Persuasive Technology (Lecture Notes in Computer Science), 118--136.Google Scholar
- Marc Hassenzahl. 2010. Experience Design: Technology for All the Right Reasons. Synthesis Lectures on Human-Centered Informatics 3, 1: 1--95. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Marc Hassenzahl, Annika Wiklund-Engblom, Anette Bengs, Susanne Hägglund, and Sarah Diefenbach. 2015. Experience-Oriented and Product-Oriented Evaluation: Psychological Need Fulfillment, Positive Affect, and Product Perception. International journal of human-computer interaction 31, 8: 530--544. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Simon Heslop. 2014. Driver boredom: Its individual difference predictors and behavioural effects. Transportation research. Part F, Traffic psychology and behaviour 22: 159--169. Google ScholarCross Ref
- ISO. 2010. ISO 9241--210:2010 - Ergonomics of human-system interaction -- Part 210: Human-centred design for interactive systems.Google Scholar
- Sheila G. Klauer, Thomas A. Dingus, Vicki L. Neale, Jeremy D. Sudweeks, David J. Ramsey, and Others. 2006. The impact of driver inattention on nearcrash/crash risk: An analysis using the 100-car naturalistic driving study data. Retrieved from https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/handle/10919/55090Google Scholar
- Martin Knobel, Marc Hassenzahl, Melanie Lamara, Tobias Sattler, Josef Schumann, Kai Eckoldt, and Andreas Butz. 2012. Clique Trip: Feeling Related in Different Cars. In Proceedings of the Designing Interactive Systems Conference (DIS '12), 29--37. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Robert Kurzban, Angela Duckworth, Joseph W. Kable, and Justus Myers. 2013. An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. The Behavioral and brain sciences 36, 6: 661--679. Google ScholarCross Ref
- P. Lessel, M. Altmeyer, M. Müller, and C. Wolff. 2016. Don't Whip Me With Your Games: Investigating Bottom-Up Gamification.Google Scholar
- James R. Lewis and Jeff Sauro. 2009. The Factor Structure of the System Usability Scale. In Human Centered Design (Lecture Notes in Computer Science), 94--103.Google Scholar
- W. Lidwell, K. Holden, and J. Butler. 2010. Universal Principles of Design, Revised and Updated: 125 Ways to Enhance Usability, Influence Perception, Increase Appeal, Make Better Design Decisions, and Teach Through Design. Rockport Publishers.Google Scholar
- Todd Litman. 2015. Autonomous vehicle implementation predictions: Implications for transport planning. In Transportation Research Board 94th Annual Meeting.Google Scholar
- Sebastian Loehmann. 2015. Experience Prototyping for Automotive Applications. University of Munich (LMU).Google Scholar
- George F. Loewenstein and Dražen Prelec. 1993. Preferences for sequences of outcomes. Psychological review 100, 1: 91.Google Scholar
- Jennifer Mankoff, Anind K. a. K. Dey, Gary Hsieh, Julie Kientz, Scott Lederer, and Morgan Ames. 2003. Heuristic Evaluation of Ambient Displays. Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems, 5: 169--176. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Amanda Rose Markey. 2014. Three Essays on Boredom. Carnegie Mellon University.Google Scholar
- Aleksandar Matic, Martin Pielot, and Nuria Oliver. 2015. Boredom-computer Interaction: Boredom Proneness and the Use of Smartphone. In Proceedings of the 2015 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp '15), 837--841. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Gerald Matthews, Sian E. Campbell, Shona Falconer, Lucy A. Joyner, Jane Huggins, Kirby Gilliland, Rebecca Grier, and Joel S. Warm. 2002. Fundamental dimensions of subjective state in performance settings: task engagement, distress, and worry. Emotion 2, 4: 315--340. Google ScholarCross Ref
- S. Matthies, A. Philipsen, and J. Svaldi. 2012. Risky decision making in adults with ADHD. Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry 43, 3: 938--946. Google ScholarCross Ref
- R. McCall and V. Koenig. 2012. Gaming concepts and incentives to change driver behaviour. In Ad Hoc Networking Workshop (Med-Hoc-Net), 2012 The 11th Annual Mediterranean, 146--151. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Rufeng Meng, Chengfeng Mao, and Romit Roy Choudhury. 2014. Driving Analytics: Will it be OBDs or Smartphones? Zendrive Inc. Retrieved from http://blog.zendrive.com/103460130120/Google Scholar
- Alexander Meschtscherjakov, Christine Döttlinger, Christina Rödel, and Manfred Tscheligi. 2015. ChaseLight: ambient LED stripes to control driving speed. In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, 212--219. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Alexander Meschtscherjakov, Alina Krischkowsky, Katja Neureiter, Alexander Mirnig, Axel Baumgartner, Verena Fuchsberger, and Manfred Tscheligi. 2016. Active Corners: Collaborative In-Car Interaction Design. In Proceedings of the 2016 ACM Conference on Designing Interactive Systems (DIS '16), 1136-- 1147. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Matthew B. Miles, A. Michael Huberman, and Johnny Saldaña. 2013. Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.Google Scholar
- Brian W. Miller. 2015. Using Reading Times and EyeMovements to Measure Cognitive Engagement. Educational psychologist 50, 1: 31--42. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Ann J. Morrison, Peta Mitchell, and Margot Brereton. 2007. The Lens of Ludic Engagement: Evaluating Participation in Interactive Art Installations. In Proceedings of the 15th ACM International Conference on Multimedia (MM '07), 509--512. Google ScholarDigital Library
- NHTSA. 2016. Distracted Driving 2014. Retrieved from https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublic ation/812260Google Scholar
- Jakob Nielsen. 1994. Usability engineering. Elsevier.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Carl Jörgen Normark. 2015. Vehicle interaction tailored to you. Interactions 22, 1: 32--36. Google ScholarDigital Library
- ita Orji and Karyn Moffatt. 2016. Persuasive technology for health and wellness: State-of-the-art and emerging trends. Health informatics journal.Google Scholar
- S. Oviatt. 2003. Multimodal interfaces. The humancomputer interaction handbookGoogle Scholar
- Sarah Pink, Pink Sarah, Kerstin Leder Mackley, Mitchell Val, Hanratty Marcus, Escobar-Tello Carolina, Bhamra Tracy, and Morosanu Roxana. 2008. Applying the lens of sensory ethnography to sustainable HCI. ACM transactions on computerhuman interaction: a publication of the Association for Computing Machinery 20, 4: 1--18.Google Scholar
- Danil V. Prokhorov, Steven F. Kalik, and Chenna K. R. Varri. 2011. System and method for reducing boredom while driving. US Patent. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/patents/US7982620Google Scholar
- J. Pruitt and T. Adlin. 2010. The Persona Lifecycle: Keeping People in Mind Throughout Product Design. Elsevier Science.Google Scholar
- Andry Rakotonirainy, Frank Feller, and Narelle L. Haworth. 2008. Using in-vehicle avatars to prevent road violence. Pervasive and mobile computing: 70-- 74.Google Scholar
- Susann Rohwedder and Robert J. Willis. 2010. Mental Retirement. The journal of economic perspectives: a journal of the American Economic Association 24, 1: 119--138.Google Scholar
- SAE International. 2014. J3016: Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems. Retrieved 4 July 2016 from http://standards.sae.org/j3016_201401/Google Scholar
- N. Schaffer. 2008. Heuristic evaluation of games. Game Usability: Advice from the Experts for Advancing.Google Scholar
- Erwin Schoitsch, Christoph Schmittner, Zhendong Ma, and Thomas Gruber. 2016. The Need for Safety and Cyber-Security Co-engineering and Standardization for Highly Automated Automotive Vehicles. In Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2015, Tim Schulze, Beate Müller and Gereon Meyer (eds.). Springer International Publishing, 251--261. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Ronald Schroeter, Jim Oxtoby, and Daniel Johnson. 2014. AR and Gamification Concepts to Reduce Driver Boredom and Risk Taking Behaviours. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, 1--8. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Ronald Schroeter, Jim Oxtoby, Daniel M. Johnson, and Fabius Steinberger. 2015. Exploring boredom proneness as a predictor of mobile phone use in the car. In Proceedings of 27th Australian Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (OZCHI 2015). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Ronald Schroeter, Andry Rakotonirainy, and Marcus Foth. 2012. The social car: new interactive vehicular applications derived from social media and urban informatics. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, 107--110. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Ronald Schroeter and Fabius Steinberger. 2016. Pokémon DRIVE: Towards increased situational awareness in semi-automated driving. In Proc. OzCHI 2016. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Katie Seaborn and Deborah I. Fels. 2015/2. Gamification in theory and action: A survey. International journal of human-computer studies 74: 14--31. Google ScholarDigital Library
- M. Sivak. 1996. The information that drivers use: is it indeed 90% visual? Perception 25, 9: 1081--1089. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Tim Smith, Harsha Vardhan, Barnaby Malet, and David Mingay. 2014. Are we there yet? Thoughts on in-car HMI. ustwo. Retrieved from http://cdn.ustwo.com/automotive/AreWeThereYet_V1. 0.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Alessandro Soro, Andry Rakotonirainy, Ronald Schroeter, and Sabine Wollstädter. 2014. Using Augmented Video to Test In-Car User Experiences of Context Analog HUDs. In Adjunct Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, 1--6. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Fabius Steinberger, April Moeller, and Ronald Schroeter. 2016. The Antecedents, Experience, and Coping Strategies of Driver Boredom in Young Adult Males. Journal of safety research. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Fabius Steinberger, Patrick Proppe, Ronald Schroeter, and Florian Alt. 2016. CoastMaster -- An Ambient Speedometer to Gamify Safe Driving. In Proceedings of Automotive User Interfaces 2016.Google Scholar
- Fabius Steinberger, Ronald Schroeter, and Diana Babiac. 2017. Engaged Drivers -- Safe Drivers: Gathering Real-Time Data from Mobile and Wearable Devices for Safe-Driving Apps. In Automotive User Interfaces - Creating Interactive Experiences in the Car, Gerrit Meixner and Christian Mueller (eds.). Springer. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Fabius Steinberger, Ronald Schroeter, and Verena Lindner. 2015. From gearstick to joystick -- Challenges in designing new interventions for the safety-critical driving context. In OzCHI 2015 Workshop on Ethical Encounters in HCI.Google Scholar
- Fabius Steinberger, Ronald Schroeter, Verena Lindner, Zachary Fitz-Walter, Joshua Hall, and Daniel Johnson. 2015. Zombies on the Road: A Holistic Design Approach to Balancing Gamification and Safe Driving. In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, 320--327. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Melanie Swan. 2012. Sensor Mania! The Internet of Things, Wearable Computing, Objective Metrics, and the Quantified Self 2.0. Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks 1, 3: 217--253. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Sarah-Kristin Thiel, Marcus Foth, and Ronald Schroeter. 2015. Ad Hoc Communities on the Road: Serendipitous Social Encounters to Enhance Tourist Experiences. In Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Australian Special Interest Group for Computer Human Interaction (OzCHI '15), 643--652. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Tim J. W. Tijs, Dirk Brokken, and Wijnand A. IJsselsteijn. 2008. Dynamic Game Balancing by Recognizing Affect. In Fun and Games, Panos Markopoulos, Boris de Ruyter, Wijnand IJsselsteijn and Duncan Rowland (eds.). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 88--93. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Atiyeh Vaezipour, Andry Rakotonirainy, and Narelle Haworth. 2015. Reviewing In-vehicle Systems to Improve Fuel Efficiency and Road Safety. Procedia Manufacturing 3: 3192--3199. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Mark Vollrath, Anja Katharina Huemer, Carolin Teller, Anastasia Likhacheva, and Jana Fricke. 2016. Do German drivers use their smartphones safely? Not really! Accident; analysis and prevention 96: 29--38. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Barry C. Watson, Angela Watson, Victor Siskind, and Judy J. Fleiter. 2009. Characteristics and predictors of high-range speeding offenders. Proceedings of 2009 Australasian Road Safety Research, Policing and Education Conference.Google Scholar
- WHO. 2015. Global status report on road safety 2015. World Health Organization.Google Scholar
- Mikael Wiberg. 2013. Methodology for materiality: interaction design research through a material lens. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing 18, 3: 625--636. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Timothy D. Wilson, David A. Reinhard, Erin C. Westgate, Daniel T. Gilbert, Nicole Ellerbeck, Cheryl Hahn, Casey L. Brown, and Adi Shaked. 2014. Social psychology. Just think: the challenges of the disengaged mind. Science 345, 6192: 75--77. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Eray Yaădereli, Cemal Gemci, and A. Ziya Aktaş. 2015. A study on cyber-security of autonomous and unmanned vehicles. The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation: Applications, Methodology, Technology 12, 4: 369--381.Google ScholarCross Ref
- R. M. Yerkes and J. D. Dodson. 1908. The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. The Journal of comparative neurology. Google ScholarCross Ref
- Chuang-Wen You, Martha Montes-de-Oca, Thomas J. Bao, Nicholas D. Lane, Hong Lu, Giuseppe Cardone, Lorenzo Torresani, and Andrew T. Campbell. 2012. CarSafe: A Driver Safety App That Detects Dangerous Driving Behavior Using Dual-cameras on Smartphones. In Proceedings of the 2012 ACM Conference on Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp '12), 671--672. Google ScholarDigital Library
- John Zimmerman, Jodi Forlizzi, and Shelley Evenson. 2007. Research Through Design As a Method for Interaction Design Research in HCI. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '07), 493--502. Google ScholarDigital Library
- 2012. State of the road: Mobile phones and driving fact sheet. CARRS-Q. Retrieved from https://www.police.qld.gov.au/EventsandAlerts/campai gns/Documents/mobile_phones_and_distraction_fs.pdfGoogle Scholar
Index Terms
- Designing Gamified Applications that Make Safe Driving More Engaging
Recommendations
Zombies on the road: a holistic design approach to balancing gamification and safe driving
AutomotiveUI '15: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular ApplicationsThis paper explores novel driving experiences that make use of gamification and augmented reality in the car. We discuss our design considerations, which are grounded in road safety psychology and video game design theory. We aim to address the tension ...
From road distraction to safe driving
Boredom and low levels of task engagement while driving can pose road safety risks, e.g., inattention during low traffic, routine trips, or semi-automated driving. Digital technology interventions that increase task engagement, e.g., through performance ...
Human Factors in Safe Driving - A Review of Literature on Systems Perspective, Distractions and Errors
GHTC '12: Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology ConferenceThis paper presents an overview of literature on human factors in driving, with a view to introduce systems perspective in driver training and evaluation, as well as the need to review road transport policies in India. There is a steady increase in ...
Comments