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2012 | Buch

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Fuel Cells in the Waste-to-Energy Chain

Distributed Generation Through Non-Conventional Fuels and Fuel Cells

verfasst von: Stephen J. McPhail, Viviana Cigolotti, Angelo Moreno

Verlag: Springer London

Buchreihe : Green Energy and Technology

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik"

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Über dieses Buch

As the availability of fossils fuels becomes more limited, the negative impact of their consumption becomes an increasingly relevant factor in our choices with regards to primary energy sources. The exponentially increasing demand for energy is reflected in the mass generation of by-products and waste flows which characterize current society’s development and use of fossil sources. The potential for recoverable material and energy in these ever-increasing refuse flows is huge, even after the separation of hazardous constituent elements, allowing safe and sustainable further exploitation of an otherwise 'wasted' resource. Fuel Cells in the Waste-to-Energy Chain explores the concept of waste-to-energy through a 5 step process which reflects the stages during the transformation of refuse flows to a valuable commodity such as clean energy.

By providing selected, integrated alternatives to the current centralized, wasteful, fossil-fuel based infrastructure, Fuel Cells in the Waste-to-Energy Chain explores how the concept of waste-to-energy can be constructed and developed into a realistic solution. The entire spectrum of current and future energy problems is illuminated through the explanation of the operational, integration and marketing implications of high efficiency technological solutions using the real context of developed regions such as Europe. Up-to-date reviews are provided on the status of technology and demonstration, implementation and marketing perspectives.

The detailed technological information and insight gathered from over twenty years of experience in the field makes Fuel Cells in the Waste-to-Energy Chain a valuable resource for all engineers and researchers in the fields of energy supply systems and waste conversion, as well as providing a key reference for discussions by policy makers, marketing experts and industry developers working in energy supply and waste management.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Uncovering Hidden Potential

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. Abundance of Waste and Energy Scarcity

Abstract

To underline the importance of the Waste-to-Energy chain proposed in this book, the motivation for exploitation of waste for energy purposes using fuel cells will be set out according to a point-by-point discussion. By reviewing the nature and availability of the world’s energy sources and by analyzing the implications of their utilization, the critical prospects of future energy supply will emerge. Simultaneously, the status and consequences are set out of a society centred on production and economic growth in terms of waste accumulation and harmful emissions. The combined picture brings to the fore that a double-edged solution can be achieved by a more extensive utilization of above all organic waste for conversion to clean, efficient energy. This principle implies and supports also a less centralized energy infrastructure, for the benefit of local productivity and an increased sense of shared responsibility.

Stephen J. McPhail

Chapter 2. Biomass and Waste as Sustainable Resources

Abstract

Biomass, as the main contributor to renewable energy in the world (about 13% of total energy consumption), is a versatile energy source—it can be stored and converted in practically any form of energy carrier and also into biochemicals and biomaterials from which, once they have been used, the energy content can be recovered to generate electricity, heat, or transport fuels. It covers a broad range of products, including traditional use of wood for cooking and heating, industrial process heat, co-firing of biomass in coal-based power plants, biogas and biofuels. Moreover, the possibility to use residues and waste as a biomass feedstock enables the production of huge quantities of energy and environmental benefits all over the world, without any fertile land use or any competition with food or feed. Since residues and wastes are part of the short carbon cycle, their use for energy purposes has a minimal extra GHG emission.

Viviana Cigolotti

Winning Fuel from Residue

Frontmatter

Chapter 3. Anaerobic Digestion

Abstract

Anaerobic digestion is a complicated biological process through which organic matter is converted into biofuel (a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide) and digestate. It can be a good technology for the development of a distributed power generation system thanks to the wide range of substrates to which it can be applied and to the different biogas end uses. Even if it is considered a well-established technology, many issues, here discussed, are still open. The optimization of the entire process involves many consequential and simultaneous biochemical reactions, digestate treatment for sustainable nutrient recovery and hydrogen production through dark fermentation. At the end of this chapter, the main biogas plant characteristics are presented.

Erica Massi

Chapter 4. Biomass and Waste Gasification

Abstract

The potential of biomass as an abundant and distributed source of energy has been extensively investigated in the last decades; this growing interest is due to the increasing attention to avoid greenhouse gases accumulating in the atmosphere. Among available biomass thermal conversion processes, the most feasible option, closest to industrial exploitation, is the gasification technology that produces a syngas rich of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and, at a lower content, methane. In addition to efficient power generation, it allows synthesis of commodity chemicals from a renewable source, adopting a so called polygeneration strategy. Despite the universally recognised environmental advantages, open issues remain the higher costs of power generation systems based on biomass with respect to fossil fuels, and technologic improvements of hot gas cleaning and conditioning devices to increase the efficiency of the utilization of thermal and chemical energy of the product gas.

Katia Gallucci

Chapter 5. Digesters, Gasifiers and Biorefineries: Plants and Field Demonstration

Abstract

In the present chapter an indication is given of the degree of industrialization reached so far by the biomass and waste conversion technologies described in Chaps. 3 and 4. Anaerobic digestion is a consolidated technology, which is reflected by the vast diffusion of waste water treatment plants. However, there is great potential for increased exploitation of this technology, especially by utilization of the diverse byproducts from the process. The future of anaerobic digestion is therefore closely related to the development of the biorefinery concept. As regards gasification, the flexibility of possible feedstock and the many varieties of syngas production routes lead to a large number of demonstration sites, with only few plants commercially in operation. These are summarized according to technology and geographical location.

Erica Massi, Hary Devianto, Katia Gallucci

Pushing for Quality End Use

Frontmatter

Chapter 6. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells

Abstract

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) are high-temperature fuel cells that stand at the end of more than 35 years of intensive development and are finding increased application in the field of high-efficiency, clean energy supply. Thanks to their operating principle, they can provide heat and power at overall efficiencies of 90%, and they could also be used in the incumbent large-scale application of carbon capture and sequestration (CCS). Despite continuous improvements in the technology, some crucial issues still call for focused research and development before the MCFC achieves full operational reliability, especially in conversion of waste-derived fuels. In addition, to gain experience and steepen the learning curve leading to market maturity, cost reduction of components and manufacturing processes are a priority.

Ping-Hsun Hsieh , J. Robert Selman, Stephen J. McPhail

Chapter 7. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Abstract

The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) is an all solid type of high-temperature fuel cell that can directly convert any mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and methane into electricity. The electrical efficiency of SOFC systems can reach very high values up to and above 60%, which makes the SOFC interesting for stationary power generation at all scales from below 1 kW_el up to several MW_el, but also for on-board electricity generation on vehicles in the range of 25 W_el to several 100 kW_el. An overview is given here of the great variety in materials and configurations that can be exploited by SOFC designers depending on the application requirements. SOFC systems display high efficiency thanks to the possibility to recycle the high quality heat into chemical (fuel) energy heat, but this involves careful engineering; also tolerance to fuel contaminants is generally higher than with other fuel cells though corrosive species need to be eliminated from the fuel stream in any case. The level of quality of cell components available is high, but further effort has to be mustered to further strengthen the SOFC for long-term operation and transient conditions.

Robert Steinberger-Wilckens

Chapter 8. Fuel Gas Clean-up and Conditioning

Abstract

The technologies described in the previous chapters have demonstrated technical maturity, but they would find their optimal application in a virtuous chain such as described in this book. One of the most crucial links to bind these technologies together is the fuel gas conditioning step. This means adequate clean-up for the removal of harmful contaminants resulting from the biomass or waste-derived feedstock (such as sulphur compounds, siloxanes, halides and tars) and a reforming step where heavy hydrocarbons are converted to lighter species, especially hydrogen and carbon monoxide. This yields the best possible conditions for high-efficiency generation of electric power and heat through high-temperature fuel cells. The gas cleaning and reforming technologies most applicable to the requirements of such fuel cells are reviewed and discussed in the present chapter.

Giulia Monteleone, Stephen J. McPhail, Katia Gallucci

Chapter 9. High-Temperature Fuel Cell Plants and Applications

Abstract

High-temperature fuel cells (HTFCs) have real and imminent potential for implementation of clean, high-efficiency conversion of renewable and waste-derived fuels. Thanks to their capability to operate relatively easily on hydrocarbon-based fuels, and to their increased durability and higher tolerance to inevitable contaminants in the alternative fuels utilized, these integrated solutions are constantly spreading world-wide. The modular build-up of HTFCs makes them adamantly suitable to a decentralised energy infrastructure, which relieves dependencies on primary energy carrier imports and encourages local productivity. In the transitional phase from fossil to renewable fuels, utilization of natural gas in HTFCs allows for the immediate implementation in the established grid infrastructure, reduces CO₂ emissions and accelerates the development to full maturity necessary for large-scale market penetration.

Viviana Cigolotti, Robert Steinberger-Wilckens, Stephen J. McPhail, Hary Devianto

Connecting Powers

Frontmatter

Chapter 10. Biomethane and Natural Gas

Abstract

One of the crucial requirements for distributed generation is the presence of an efficient and sufficiently encompassing network for easy transfer of energy from sources of production to the end-user: allowing continuous variation of these players both in time and place. The natural gas grid—constructed over several decades—has these properties, and provides an immediate opportunity for the implementation of decentralized generation and use. Biogas from anaerobic digestion, due to its high methane content, is the ideal energy carrier to substitute non-renewable natural gas. In order to conform to natural gas quality, the biogas has to be upgraded, which entails especially the removal of carbon dioxide and sulphur compounds, so that it becomes biomethane. Harmonized and univocal regulations are called for to establish the conditions and methods of biomethane feed-into the natural gas grid, to promote a smooth transition from the one energy vector to the other.

Erica Massi, Stephen J. McPhail

Chapter 11. Electricity and the Grid

Abstract

Electricity is an efficient energy vector that carries over long distances and has minimal impact at the place of end use. However, in order to accommodate the many localized and discontinuous production sources characterizing distributed generation, it will be increasingly necessary to adopt active and intelligent solutions in the electricity supply system. This is the notion that stands at the base of the development of smart grids, which will be briefly described.

Maria Gaeta

Chapter 12. Prospects of Hydrogen as a Future Energy Carrier

Abstract

Energy is a driving force for technical progress. The current fossil based energy economy will come to its limits within the next couple of decades demanding a turn into renewable energies. While the technical potential of renewable energies is large, matching of fluctuating supply and demand in time and space is most likely a more serious challenge than the further development of renewable energy harvesting technologies. Hydrogen can be considered as a viable option for energy storage to supplement traditional technologies such as pumped hydro, compressed air storage or secondary batteries. Hydrogen can be generated from a variety of fossil and renewable sources thus providing the opportunity for a smooth transition from an energy economy based on the consumption of fossil fuels into a sustainable energy economy based on renewables. In this chapter, technologies for hydrogen production and storage are presented and the perspectives of hydrogen as a secondary energy carrier are described.

Ludwig Jörissen

Implementation and Perspectives

Frontmatter

Chapter 13. Market and Feasibility Analysis of Non-conventional Technologies

Abstract

High-temperature fuel cells systems (HTFCs) can be used in more demanding applications where larger systems are required and/or additional heat is useful. They have the possibility of generating extra electrical power, improving the overall system electrical efficiency to nearly 70%, but also the possibility of using cogenerated heat (or cold) and thereby increasing total energy efficiency to 90%. Either of these options brings down the cost per unit of energy even if the capital cost of the system is high: though stationary systems will be expected to have a lifetime of 40,000 h (five years continuous running). The costs associated with fuel cells are not yet clear–either from a capital or operating perspective. Current costs are well above conventional technologies in most areas, though this depends slightly on the type of fuel cell and the market area in which it may play a part. The Waste-to-Energy chain could be a niche market for the HTFCs, which can play a very central role, reducing dependence from fossil fuels, reducing CO₂ emissions and accelerates the development of a large-scale market penetration.

Viviana Cigolotti

Chapter 14. Concluding Remarks

Abstract

Opinion in the developed world is slowly but surely converging toward acceptance of the necessity for a more sustainable supply of energy. Accordingly, governments and policymakers worldwide are cautiously implementing measures for the reduction of primary energy consumption and harmful emissions, and for an increase in efficiency. Bringing these about is a precarious compromise between technological, social and economic challenges, which reflects the cross-cutting nature of the solutions that need to become available. In this book, such an approach has been followed to bring to the fore the potential of utilizing biomass and waste for sustainable energy production, thereby combining the advantages of slowing down fossil fuel depletion and reducing the colossal flows of refuse clogging up the biosphere. Next-generation technologies to achieve this are already available, and a selected chain of them has been discussed in detail in this handbook. Improvements in their performance and cost are still necessary, and these have been highlighted, but it is their integration and coordinated application that is crucial to harmonize our development with a healthy planet.

Stephen J. McPhail

Backmatter

Titel: Fuel Cells in the Waste-to-Energy Chain
verfasst von: Stephen J. McPhail
Viviana Cigolotti
Angelo Moreno
Verlag: Springer London
Electronic ISBN: 978-1-4471-2369-9
Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-2368-2
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2369-9