Biomass Conversion and Sustainable Biorefinery

It has become a global concern for reducing the utilization of fossil sources for energy and chemical purposes. Not only environmental issues such as greenhouses gases increment but also depleting fossil reserves, which became the reason to quest for new and renewable raw materials. Lignocellulosic biomass that is abundantly available is being studied as a potential material to provide both fuels and biochemicals. However, to fractionate and disintegrate its main components: cellulose; hemicellulose and lignin is a very challenging step. Different pretreatment approaches that considering energy consumption, cost effectiveness, percentage of lignin removal, further utilization of the cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and environmentally friendly process have been applied. The review covers the recent pretreatment technology that applied physicochemical approach; chemicals pretreatment and application of Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES); biological pretreatment; and high energy of radiation. This study explained a deeper understanding of the pretreatment technologies for developing biorefinery concepts to support the sustainable development of utilization of lignocellulosic biomass.

Fossil sources are common raw materials in the polymer industry because they are cost-effective and ensure a straightforward manufacturing process. However, the insufficient supply of fossil sources failed to afford adequate feedstock for polymer production in the future. Fossil sources are projected to reach a saturation point where supply would be less than demand due to the increasing human population. Another important concern is the fact that fossil-based polymer creates several environmental problems, such as non-degradable products, air pollution, and wastewater contamination (Okkerse and Bekkum 1999). These two main reasons are the main factors why the switch of the raw materials of polymers from fossil to renewable materials is necessary, and the research on biobased polymeric materials becomes an interesting yet urgent topic. In this chapter, we review the current updates on the development of biopolymers. The precursors, technological processes, and updates on the currently available biopolymers are being reviewed. Challenges and future perspectives are also being discussed.

Most packaging used today is made of plastic, which is produced from fossil-based polymers. In terms of its ease of processing and cheapness, plastic is non-biodegradable. Apart from being a plastic substitute, cellulose-based packaging is bio-based and sustainable. Cellulose is commonly generated from vascular plants. However, numerous chemicals are required for cellulose isolation and purification. For plant cellulose replacement, bacterial cellulose is considered as the favorable resources. Bacterial cellulose, also well known as microbial cellulose, is the cellulose produced by the activity of non-pathogen gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria in the substrate containing carbon and nitrogen. Possessing a three-dimensional nano-structure, high reactive functional groups, high mechanical strength properties, and bacterial cellulose attracts much attention for research work or commercial purposes. However, Hestrin-Schramm, the synthetic or considered as standard medium for bacterial cellulose production, is expensive. Recently, there has been a lot of interest in searching for carbon and nitrogen sources as an alternative to synthetic bacterial growth media. Agro-industrial byproducts are derived from agriculture and food industry processing. Rich in carbohydrates and protein, these resources are suitable for bacterial cellulose production. This chapter aims to describe the agro-industrial residues for bacterial cellulose production and their recent possible application for food packaging.

Biomass is currently seen as a potential to be used as bioenergy resources. Its high availability and renewability generate extensive interest for further valorization. In Indonesia, research and development of transforming biomass into bioenergy via different pathways is expanding. Conversion of biomass via physical/mechanical, biochemical, and thermochemical offers produces bioenergy in the form of liquid (i.e., biodiesel, bioethanol, and bio-oil), gasses (i.e., biogas and syngas), and solid (i.e., biopellets, biochars, and briquettes). These types of bioenergy are essential for substituting fossil-based fuels, hence have positive impacts on reducing carbon emissions and climate change. Different mechanisms of process occur during the conversion. Specific measures to the influencing factors are crucial to ensure the optimum performance efficacy. This chapter discusses various bioenergy routes from biomass substrates from the process’ mechanisms to examples, in particular anaerobic digestion, transesterification, fermentation, densification, and thermochemical pathways.

Indonesia is the largest producer of palm oil. Biorefinery by-products from palm oil can be classified into lignocellulosic and fiber-rich biomass. Palm kernel meal (PKM), a by-product from palm kernel oil extraction contains crude protein (13–16%) and there have been ongoing efforts to improve its utilization as animal feed. The restriction of PKM used in animal feed is linked with the imbalance of amino acids, high fiber content, shell, and other physical characteristics. On the other hand, Indonesia is among the leading countries in marine industry, by-products of fish, shrimp, crustaceans, and other marine processing industries are of high potency for animal feedstuff. Chitin, the dominant by-product of shrimp production, has ahead popularity in the last decade due to its large spectrum functions, especially as antimicrobial agent, non-toxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible. This chapter discusses the recent advances in PKM and marine industry by-products availability status and utilization, and novel technologies to improve their quality for animal feed and feed additive. A practical and conceptual development of the bioproducts for implementation, especially in the context of Indonesia and other countries with similar characteristics of nature. Biological processes including solid-state fermentation, mechanical processing, and valorization techniques can be integrated to process the biomass from palm oil industry. Chemical treatments including green chemistry techniques could improve chitosan functionality. Implementation of biorefinery techniques of biomass and by-products of palm oil and marine resources promise supporting raw material stock and sustainability for the feed and feed additive of animals.

The biorefinery concepts that merge technology and methods to transform aquatic biomass require the efficient utilization of most of the components. The presence of lipids, protein, and carbohydrates in aquatic biomass makes it a suitable feedstock for biofuel generation. Aquatic biomass’s sugar and lignin components might be used to produce gas, heat, and bio-oil using thermochemical processes. The sugar component might be fermented to generate bio-butanol, bio-methanol, and bioethanol. The aquatic biomass lipid component could be used to manufacture biodiesel. Aquatic biomass might also be converted through biological processes into bio-methane and bio-hydrogen. Thermochemical processing (hydrothermal, pyrolysis, torrefaction) is a potential clean method for converting aquatic biomass and lignocellulosic materials to high-added value chemicals and bioenergy.

Microalgae and cyanobacteria produced abundant high-valued bioproducts in small arable land in a short time. The bioproducts range from their biomass for food, feed, and biofuels to extractable fine bioproducts. The growing market and techno-economical aspect support the viability of this biomass production. Microalgae and Cyanobacteria are also highly diverse thus progression of its current usage in biomass production served as a challenge of its own but also an opportunity. In this book chapter, progression in cultivating and screening of technologies on bioprocess engineering of microalgae and cyanobacteria will be discussed with their high-demands on food, feed, and energy industry. This chapter further discusses the advance and manufacturer of different valuable bioproducts through technologies and production platforms for Microalgae and Cyanobacteria.

Palm oil is usually used for the needs of food, chemical industry, and cosmetic industry. The basic processing of palm fruit can produce two types of oil namely crude palm oil (CPO) which is produced from the extraction process of the mesocarp part of the oil palm fruit and palm kernel oil (PKO) as an extract of the palm kernel part. Naturally, oils and fats have specific characteristics, and the development of food processing and technology causes these characteristics to not able to meet all the expected needs to obtain products with certain functional properties such as: lipids for sufferers of coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes sufferers, patients in the post-operative recovery period, patients who suffer from allergies or digestive problems, and consumers who are controlling their weight low-calorie products. The dominant fatty acids in palm oil are palmitic, oleic acid, and linoleic acid. CPO also contains minor components such as squalene, sterols, and carotenoids. Structured lipids (SLs) are the result of modification or restructuring of triacylglycerols, which can be obtained by chemical or enzymatic interesterification of triacylglycerols containing short, medium, and/or long chain fatty acids. SLs are the result of modification or restructuring of triacylglycerols, which can be obtained by chemical or enzymatic interesterification of triacylglycerols. SLs can be sourced from animal or vegetable fats, or genetic engineering. SLs are synthesized for the purpose of obtaining functional lipids or nutraceuticals, which can improve or modify the physical, chemical, and rheological characteristics of oils and fats, and changing or enhancing nutrition properties of food, giving a certain health benefit. Palm oil has special fatty acids and other minor components, making it possible to be used as a raw material for the manufacture of SLs so that their bioavailability increases. Functional oil and fat production can be catalyzed by lipase. Fats/oils can improve physicochemical and nutritional properties using a lipase catalyst. Palm oil has special fatty acids and other minor components, making it possible to be used as a raw material for the manufacture of SLs so that their bioavailability increases. Functional oil and fat production can be catalyzed by lipase. Fats/oils can improve physicochemical and nutritional properties using a lipase catalyst.

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a renewable material which is currently playing a central role in medical device applications due to its biocompatibility and capability to be structurally, chemically, and morphologically modified at macro, micro, and nano scales. In addition, BC also has high water content, mechanical strength, and purity which are also excellent properties for use in biomedical applications. Despite the numerous advantages of BC properties for biomedical applications, its use for commercialization is still a challenge due to the high expense of the carbon and nitrogen sources required for BC synthesis. This study will provide an overview of numerous alternate sources of carbon and nitrogen from agricultural byproducts for BC synthesis that have been investigated and the potential of BC to be used for medical devices.

Xylose and XOS become products of interest and have good markets. Xylose and XOS are derived from xylans, which are parts of hemicellulose fraction of lignocellulosic biomass. The demand tends to increase due to depletion of fossil resources and a new paradigm shift in consumer preferences for healthier and natural products. There are different extraction methods or fractionation processes to extract xylose and XOS from lignocellulosic biomass feedstocks, including autohydrolysis and hydrolysis using acid, alkaline, solvent, and inorganic salts. The hydrolysis usually involves high temperature and pressure. It is important to find the most suitable, effective, and affordable method to first fractionate biomass major chemical components and achieve the practical applications of the method. There are some unwanted substances and oligosaccharides of various degree of polymerization (DP) produced during the manufacture of XOS and xylose. These substances should be removed to obtain xylose and XOS with high purity. Some purification methods such as solvent extraction, adsorption separation, chromatographic separation, and membrane filtration, or combinations of those methods could be applied. Xylose can be utilized for a variety of purposes, either directly as xylose or as a feedstock for the subsequent production of a variety of products, including furfural, furfuryl alcohol, xylitol, levulinic acid, ethanol, butanol, and hydrogen through chemical or biological conversion. XOS can be used as antioxidant, prebiotic, gelling agent, cosmetics, plant growth regulator, treatment of diabetes, arteriosclerosis, and colon cancer, and are commercially interesting to be used as animal feed, food, beverage, and pharmaceutical ingredients. The production of xylose and XOS from lignocellulosic biomass still has some challenges regarding the technology to produce the products that are feasible commercially, but it has good prospects in the future as the increasing awareness to use renewable resources to produce healthier and environmentally friendlier products.

Carotenoids, a group of substances that belongs to the terpenoid group, are widely used for food colouring to give yellow, orange, or red colour in food products. In particular, β-carotene can be produced by extraction from biological substance, such as vegetables, fruits, oils, or microbial fermentation; or produced synthetically via chemical reactions. This article presents a review of β-carotene production method, in particular from biomass waste. As a case study, the potential of β-carotene production from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches (OPEFB), the major biomass waste from the palm oil industry, is evaluated.

Obesity, defined as an excessive adipose tissue mass, is a major factor in increasing the risk of serious diseases such as heart disease, hypertension, and diabetes. Obesity is associated with the expansion of adipose tissue by excessive dietary fat intake, which results in adipocyte hyperplasia and hypertrophy. Thus, inhibiting adipocyte differentiation and accumulation of lipids are important targets for preventing obesity. As the mechanism of single clove black garlic (SCBG) extract affecting lipid metabolism in adipocytes remains unclear, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of SCBG extract on lipid metabolism in mature 3T3-L1 adipocytes. The analysis revealed that SCBG extract contained 23.15 mg/g of polyphenol and 9.75 mg/g of flavonoid compounds. SCBG extract had stronger capacities to scavenge α,α-diphenyl-β-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) than fresh single clove garlic (FSCG) with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of 0.602 mg/mL. The treatment of SCBG extracts at a concentration of 2.5–7.5 mg/mL had a cytotoxic effect that reduced cell viability. However, there was no significant difference between the concentration of extract to the cell viability of adipocytes (p < 0.05). Furthermore, SCBG extract at 2.5 and 5 significantly reduced lipid accumulation (p < 0.05), and 7.5 mg/mL significantly reduced lipid accumulation (p < 0.01) compared to cell control indicating potential in anti-obesity effect.