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2020 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

1. An Empire of Debts? Spain and Its Colonial Realm

Author : Regina Grafe

Published in: A World of Public Debts

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter shows that by the eighteenth century, Spain had developed in its colonies a system based on religious endowments, merchant guilds, and a transfer network of public monies that proved an effective way to politically negotiate, credit-finance, and execute the necessary intertemporal and interspatial transfers to sustain a vast territorial empire while burdening the central state with surprisingly little formal debt for a power of that size. Spain and its empire thus had a very different public debt regime than contemporary Britain or France. The chapter thus concludes that imposing such an Anglo-French-centric normative view of public finance was precisely the source of the financial and fiscal woes of Latin American republics in the nineteenth century.

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Footnotes
1
Regina Grafe, Distant Tyranny: Markets, Power and Backwardness in Spain, 1650–1800 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012).
 
2
Timothy Besley and Torsten Persson, “The Origins of State Capacity: Property Rights, Taxation, and Politics,” American Economic Review 99, no. 4 (2009); Bartolomé Yun Casalilla and Patrick K. O’Brien, The Rise of Fiscal States: A Global History, 1500–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
 
3
Stephen H. Haber, ed., How Latin America Fell Behind: Essays on the Economic Histories of Brazil and Mexico, 1800–1914 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997).
 
4
Stephen Haber, “Financial Markets and Industrial Development: A Comparative Study of Governmental Regulation, Financial Innovation, and Industrial Structure in Brazil and Mexico, 1840–1930,” in How Latin America Fell Behind, ed. Haber.
 
5
Frank Griffith Dawson, The First Latin American Debt Crisis: The City of London and the 1822–25 Loan Bubble (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).
 
6
Carlos Marichal, A Century of Debt Crises in Latin America: From Independence to the Great Depression, 1820–1930 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989).
 
7
Marc Bloch, The Historian’s Craft (New York: Vintage Books, 1953), 25.
 
8
The vales reales issued in the late eighteenth century by the Madridtreasury circulated in Spanish America, but had not been issued by local treasuries.
 
9
Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty (New York: Crown, 2012).
 
10
Jorge I. Domínguez, “Explaining Latin America’s Lagging Development in the Second Half of the Twentieth Century: Growth Strategies, Inequality, and Economic Crises,” in Falling Behind. Explaining the Development Gap between Latin America and the United States, ed. Francis Fukuyama (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).
 
11
Regina Grafe and Alejandra Irigoin, “The Spanish Empire and Its Legacy: Fiscal Re-Distribution and Political Conflict in Colonial and Post-Colonial Spanish America,” Journal of Global History 1, no. 2 (2006); Regina Grafe and Alejandra Irigoin, “A Stakeholder Empire: The Political Economy of Spanish Imperial Rule in America,” Economic History Review 65, no. 2 (2012); Alejandra Irigoin and Regina Grafe, “Bargaining for Absolutism: A Spanish Path to Empire and Nation Building,” Hispanic American Historical Review 88, no. 2 (2008); Regina Grafe and Alejandra Irigoin, “Negotiating Power: Fiscal Constraints and Financial Development in Early Modern Spain and the Spanish Empire,” in Questioning Credible Commitment, eds. D’Maris Coffman, Adrian Leonard and Larry Neal (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013).
 
12
James Mahoney, Colonialism and Postcolonial Development: Spanish America in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
 
13
Mauricio Drelichman and Hans-Joachim Voth, Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014); Mía J. Rodríguez-Salgado, The Changing Face of Empire: Charles V, Philip II and Habsburg Authority, 1551–1559 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Carlos Álvarez-Nogal and Christophe Chamley, “Debt Policy under Constraints: Philip II, the Cortes, and Genoese Bankers,” Economic History Review 67, no. 1 (2014).
 
14
Grafe, Distant Tyranny.
 
15
For a more detailed analysis of war finance, see Rafael Torres Sánchez, “The Triumph of the Fiscal-Military State in the Eighteenth Century: War and Mercantilism,” in War, State and Development: Fiscal-Military States in the Eighteenth Century, ed. Rafael Torres Sánchez (Pamplona: EUNSA, 2007).
 
16
Acemoglu and Robinson, Why Nations Fail; Mahoney, Colonialism and Postcolonial Development; Allan J. Kuethe and Kenneth J. Andrien, The Spanish Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century: War and the Bourbon Reforms, 1713–1796 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Stanley J. Stein and Barbara H. Stein, Silver, Trade, and War: Spain and America in the Making of Early Modern Europe (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000).
 
17
Pedro Cardim et al., Polycentric Monarchies: How Did Early Modern Spain and Portugal Achieve and Maintain a Global Hegemony? (Portland, Or.: Sussex Academic Press, 2012); Grafe and Irigoin, “Stakeholder”; Regina Grafe, “Tyrannie à distance. La construction de l’État polycentrique et les systèmes fiscaux en Espagne (1650–1800),” in Ressources publiques et construction étatique en Europe, ed. Katia Béguin (Paris: IGPDE, 2015).
 
18
Grafe, Distant Tyranny.
 
19
Grafe and Irigoin, “Stakeholder.”
 
20
For a description of the system, see Herbert S. Klein, The American Finances of the Spanish Empire: Royal Income and Expenditures in Colonial Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia, 1680–1809 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998); Herbert S. Klein and John J. Tepaske, The Royal Treasuries of the Spanish Empire in America (Durham: Duke University Press, 1982), introduction; Irigoin and Grafe, “Bargaining for Absolutism.”
 
21
Kuethe and Andrien, Spanish Atlantic World.
 
22
Cristina Ana Mazzeo, El comercio libre en el Perú. Las estrategias de un comerciante criollo, José Antonio de Lavalle y Cortés, Conde de Premio Real, 1777–1815 (Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Fondo Editorial, 1994).
 
23
Margaret Levi, Of Rule and Revenue (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
 
24
Michael Kwass, “A Kingdom of Taxpayers: State Formation, Privilege, and Political Culture in Eighteenth-Century France,” Journal of Modern History 70, no. 2 (1998).
 
25
Jürgen Golte, Repartos y rebeliones: Túpac Amaru y las contradicciones de la economía colonial (Lima: IEP, 2016).
 
26
Nuno Palma and Jaime Reis, “From Convergence to Divergence: Portuguese Demography and Economic Growth, 1500–1850,” Working paper, Groningen Growth and Development Centre (2016).
 
27
Herbert S. Klein, “Origin and Volume of Remission of Royal Tax Revenues from the Viceroyalties of Peru and Nueva España,” in Dinero, moneda y crédito en la Monarquía hispánica, ed. Antonio Miguel Bernal (Madrid: Marcial Pons, 2000).
 
28
Grafe and Irigoin, “A Stakeholder Empire,” figure 1.
 
29
Archivo General de Indias (AGI), Contaduria, Legajo 1160.
 
30
Herbert S. Klein, “The Great Shift: The Rise of Mexico and the Decline of Peru in the Spanish American Colonial Empire, 1680–1809,” Revista de Historia Económica 13, no. 1 (1995).
 
31
Javier Arnault, “Was Colonialism Fiscally Sustainable? An Empirical Examination of the Colonial Finances of Spanish America,” AEHE Working Paper 1703 (2017).
 
32
Grafe, Distant Tyranny.
 
33
Montserrat Gárate Ojanguren, La Real Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas (San Sebastián: Sociedad Guipuzcoana de Ediciones y Publicaciones, 1990).
 
34
Margarita Suarez, Desafíos transatlánticos. Mercaderes, banqueros y el Estado en el Perú virreinal, 1600–1700 (Lima: Fondo de cultura económica, 2001).
 
35
Kenneth J. Andrien, “The Sale of Juros and the Politics of Reform in the Viceroyalty of Peru, 1608–1695,” Journal of Latin American Studies 13, no. 1 (1981).
 
36
For a late-fifteenth-century example, see Richard A. Goldthwaite, Economy of Renaissance Florence (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011), 435–36.
 
37
Asunción Lavrín, “The Role of Nunneries in the Economy of New Spain in the Eighteenth Century,” Hispanic American Historical Review 46 (1966); Gisela von Wobeser, El crédito eclesiástico en la Nueva España. Siglo XVIII (Mexico: Fondo de cultura económica, 2010); Kathryn Burns, Colonial Habits: Convents and the Spiritual Economy of Cuzco, Peru (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999). For Spain, see Cyril Milhaud, “Interregional Flows of Long-Term Mortgage Credit in Eighteenth-Century Spain. To What Extent Was the Market Fragmented?” Working Paper, version 3 (2018), https://​hal-pse.​archives-ouvertes.​fr/​hal-01180682v3.
 
38
Gisela von Wobeser, “La inquisición como institución crediticia en el siglo XVIII,” Historia Mexicana 39, no. 4 (1990): 864. Expressed as 14,000 or 20,000 al millar.
 
39
Gisela von Wobeser, “Las fundaciones piadosas como fuentes de crédito en la época colonial,” Historia Mexicana 38, no. 4 (1989): 786.
 
40
Burns, Colonial Habits.
 
41
von Wobeser, “Inquisición.”
 
42
Burns, Colonial Habits, 152–54.
 
43
von Wobeser, “Inquisición.”
 
44
Grafe and Irigoin, “Stakeholder,” 626–30. See Appendices II through IV for details. For Spain and the Cinco Gremios, see Guillermo Pérez Sarrión, “Gremios, gremios mayores, cinco gremios mayores: Madrid, 1680–1790. Una interpretación y algunas preguntas,” in Recuperando el Norte: empresas, capitales y proyectos atlánticos en la economía imperial hispánica, ed. Alberto Angulo Morales and Álvaro Aragón Ruano (Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco, 2016).
 
45
Guillermo Lohmann Villena, “Banca y crédito en la América española. Notas sobre hipótesis de trabajo y fuentes informativas,” Historia 8 (1969).
 
46
Suarez, Desafíos -ransatlánticos; Cristina Ana Mazzeo, Gremios mercantiles en las guerras de la independencia: Perú y México en la transición de la Colonia a la República, 1740–1840 (Lima: Banco Central de Reserva del Perú, 2012).
 
47
von Wobeser, “Inquisición,” cuadro 5.
 
48
Lohmann Villena, “Banca.”
 
49
See the forum in Hispanic American Historical Review 88, no. 2 (2008): Carlos Marichal, “Rethinking Negotiation and Coercion in an Imperial State”; William R. Summerhill, “Fiscal Bargains, Political Institutions and Economic Performance”; Irigoin and Grafe, “Bargaining for Absolutism.”
 
50
AGI Cuba legajo 604b, f453.
 
51
Lohmann Villena, “Banca,” 304.
 
52
Rafael Torres Sánchez, Military Entrepreneurs and the Spanish Contractor State in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).
 
53
Roger Knight and Martin Wilcox, Sustaining the Fleet, 1793–1815: War, the British Navy and the Contractor State (Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2010).
 
54
Gisela von Wobeser, “La Consolidación de Vales Reales como factor determinante de la lucha de independencia en México, 1804–1808,” Historia Mexicana 56, no. 2 (2006).
 
Metadata
Title
An Empire of Debts? Spain and Its Colonial Realm
Author
Regina Grafe
Copyright Year
2020
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48794-2_1