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Published in:
Legal Cultures: Combining Diversity and Structure Read chapter Read first chapter

2023 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

An Introduction to Belgian Legal Culture

Author : Bruno Debaenst

Published in: Handbook on Legal Cultures

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Belgium is a small but complex country with an interesting and unique legal culture. It lies on the historical vault between Germanic and Romanic Europe, as a result of which the country has three different languages (respectively Dutch and German versus French) and two main populations, Flemish and French-speaking Belgians. Originally a unitary state, Belgium has transformed into a federal state through successive state reforms, with the new Constitutional Court as an arbiter between the different entities, which are all equal and without hierarchy. This in its turn has resulted in two emerging subcultures that are slowly but steadily drifting apart. Internationalization and Europeanization are adding some layer to the already complex mosaic of cultural diversity in this small jurisdiction at the very centre of Europe. Historically and as an offspring of the French legal culture, the Belgian legal culture is a civil law system with a set of (originally Napoleonic) codifications and a rational judicial system. The organization of the judiciary and the application of laws in many ways reflect the ideal of law and justice in Belgium: accessible, tailor-made, specialized, and sufficiently flexible to include considerations of individual justice, with the necessary checks and balances. Just like the French legal culture, the Belgian legal culture is strictly legally positivistic and has a high degree of professionalization.

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previous chapter An Introduction to Austrian Legal Culture
next chapter An Introduction to the Legal Cultures of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia (Western Balkan)
Footnotes
1
For the population statistics, see https://​statbel.​fgov.​be/​en/​themes/​population/​structure-population; for the land area, see https://​bestat.​statbel.​fgov.​be/​bestat/​crosstable.​xhtml?​datasource=​b5c5eedc-95bf-4927-929e-d6395345a53a; for the population density, see https://​www.​populationpyrami​d.​net/​nl/​bevolkingsdichth​eid/​belgië/​2021. As for the land area, it was until recently calculated at 30,528 km2, see for example https://​www.​belgium.​be/​en/​about_​belgium/​country/​geography. The change can be explained by a new calculation method of Eurostat, which now also includes the beaches.
 
2
This follows out of article 4 of the Belgian Constitution: there are four language areas: the Dutch-speaking language area (Flanders), the French-speaking language area (most of Wallonia), the German-speaking language area (in the East of Belgium) and the bilingual (Dutch/French) Brussels area. The Constitution also stipulates in article 30 that the use of languages in Belgium is free. For an analysis of the specific language situation in Brussels, see Mettewie and Janssens (2007).
 
8
The Romans called the inhabitants of the current Belgium and adjacent territories Belgae and their land Gallia Belgica. Belgica was also used as a synonym for the Seventeen Provinces, i.e., the Habsburg Netherlands, between 1543 and 1585. When the North of the Low Countries became independent as the Dutch Republic (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden), its Latin name was Belgica Foederata. In 1789–1790, the Austrian Netherlands declared independence as the United Belgian States (Verenigde Belgische Staten/États-Belgiques-Unis). During the French period, the word “Belgium” (België/la Belgique) was used for Southern Netherlands. In 1830, when the southern part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands revolted against the Dutch, they founded the Kingdom of Belgium.
 
9
With the Treaty of Verdun (843), the Carolingian Empire was divided into three kingdoms. The Low Countries were part of Middle Francia, ruled by Lothair I. With the treaties of Mersen or Meerssen (870) and Ribemont (880), the territories of Lotharingia were divided between West Francia (later France) and East Francia (later Holy Roman Empire of German Nations), leading to the division of the Low Countries.
 
10
Curtis (2013).
 
11
For instance, in 1531 he reorganized the central administration of the Netherlands. He installed three specific councils (the so-called collaterale raden). (1) The Council of State (Raad van State/Conseil d’Etat), consisting of 12 high nobles and competent for foreign affairs; (2) the Secret Council (Geheime Raad/Conseil Secret), a council with lawyers who dealt with matters of the interior and justice; and (3) the Financial Council (Raad van Financiën/Conseil des Finances), which dealt with financial matters.
 
12
With the Burgundian Treaty of 1548, ratified on 26 June 1548, the status of the Netherlands within the Holy Roman Empire was settled. It enlarged the Burgundian Circle within the empire, so that it comprised all the Burgundian territories. In addition, these territories were no longer subject to the Reichskammergericht.
 
13
On 4 November 1549, to be more precise. On the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, see Surhone et al. (2010), p. 86.
 
14
Manzano Baena (2011).
 
15
Louis XIV made several military campaigns. In 1667, he for instance conquered the city of Lille, which was officially annexed in 1668 and is still French today. He also conquered other cities, such as Ieper, Veurne, and Kortrijk, which were French for several decades, until he gave them back with the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713. They are now Belgian. In 1695, he for instance bombarded Brussels. When you visit the “Grote Markt” in Brussels, you can see that many buildings date shortly after that bombardment.
 
16
This was settled with the Peace Treaty of Rastatt of 7 March 1714 between France and Austria. See Bruin et al. (2015).
 
17
On the French era, see Berger et al. (2015). On the Code civil and its further evolution in Belgium in the period 1804–2004, see Heirbaut (2004). 
 
18
Marteel (2018).
 
19
On the Belgian political history from 1830 on, see Witte et al. (2014).
 
20
On the Belgian Constitution, see Populier and Lemmens (2015). On Belgian constitutional law, see Alen et al. (2021) The full, contemporary text of the Constitution can be consulted in English on the website of the Constitutional Court: https://​www.​const-court.​be/​en/​court/​basic-text#1-la-constitution-de-la-belgique-federale.
 
21
On the Belgian Kings and the historical role of the monarchy in Belgium, see Stengers (1997).
 
22
King Willem had a language policy to install Dutch as an official language in Flanders (education, judiciary, administration). This was a problem for the French-speaking bourgeoisie who did not speak Dutch. They were frustrated because they did not have career opportunities. Many of them were young lawyers who were also politically active by writing critical pamphlets. For this, they were often prosecuted and put in jail. See Delbecke (2013).
 
23
Act of 17 August 1878, Moniteur belge 26 August 1873.
 
24
Act of 22 May 1878, Moniteur belge 25 May 1878.
 
25
Act of 18 April 1898, Moniteur belge 15 May 1898.
 
26
Conway (2005).
 
27
On these reforms, see Populier and Lemmens (2015), part III.
 
28
Craenen (2001); see also vande Lanotte et al. (2006).
 
31
For an overview of Belgian political history, see Witte et al. (2014). For a short analysis of some developments in the Belgian legal culture, such as the consolidation of the Belgian Rechtsstaat, the linguistic problem, the socio-economical problem, the confessional problem, the emancipation of women, the problems regarding legal aid, and the multicultural society, see Raes (2004).
 
32
For instance, immigrants perform worse in the labour market. In 2018, Belgium had the lowest employment rate (54%) of all EU Member States for persons born outside the EU. See https://​ec.​europa.​eu/​eurostat/​web/​products-eurostat-news/​-/​DDN-20190529-1?​inheritRedirect=​​true&​redirect=​%2Feurostat%2F. In 2021, there was only an employment rate of 43.3% for non-EU27 citizens. See https://​statbel.​fgov.​be/​en/​themes/​work-training/​labour-market/​employment-and-unemployment. See also the following, taken from https://​www.​ilo.​org/​wcmsp5/​groups/​public/​%2D%2D-ed_​protect/​%2D%2D-protrav/​%2D%2D-migrant/​documents/​publication/​wcms_​222293.​pdf, p. 57: “If one looks at the labour market integration of the migrant population, Belgium is not performing well. Third-country nationals hold a worse labour market position compared to EU27 migrants and Belgian nationals. They have an unemployment rate that is more than double the unemployment rate of EU27 migrants and Belgian nationals.”
 
33
For an interesting analysis of this phenomenon, see Mnookin and Verbeke (2009).
 
34
These persistent problems made some Flemish and French-speaking academics (historians, sociologists) reflect on the possible future of Belgium; see De Wever (2010).
 
35
With the liberals, socialists, ecologists, and Christian democrats on the Flemish side and the liberals, socialists, and ecologists on the French-speaking side. The name of the coalition refers to the “Four seasons” of Antonio Vivaldi, with the liberals (blue) representing Winter, the ecologists (green) Spring, the socialists (red) Summer, and the Christian democrats (orange) Autumn. The Vivaldi coalition has a majority of 87 seats in the 150 seats, with 41 Flemish and 46 French-speaking members of parliament.
 
36
Some are pleading to revive the BENELUX, see e.g. Wouters (2006).
 
37
There is not a specific provision in the Constitution allowing the national government to transfer sovereignty to the EU, but there is Article 167, § 1: “The King directs international relations, notwithstanding the competence of Communities and Regions to regulate international cooperation, including the concluding of treaties, for those matters that fall within their competences in pursuance of or by virtue of the Constitution.” In Article 168 of the Constitution, it is written: “From the beginning, the Houses are informed of negotiations concerning any revision of the treaties establishing the European Community and the treaties and acts which have modified or complemented them. They receive the draft treaty before its signature.”
 
38
Heirbaut and Gerkens (2010).
 
39
Heirbaut (2004) and (2005).
 
40
Heirbaut and Storme (2006).
 
41
In 2004, a cumulative edition of the 1804 Civil Code appeared, with a comparison of the contemporary and original text, including all the changes. See Heirbaut and Baeteman (2004). On pp. 2209–2032, there is a list with all the legislation that changed provisions of the Code. See also Heirbaut and Martyn (2005).
 
42
Heirbaut et al. (2021) and Heirbaut and Bruyère (2022).
 
43
Heirbaut (2017), pp. 18–19.
 
44
For instance, the two main journals for private law are Tijdschrift voor privaatrecht (in Dutch) and Revue Critique du Jurisprudence belge (in French). The two main general journals are Rechtskundig Weekblad (in Dutch) and Journal des Tribunaux (in French). For a legal history of the legal periodicals in Belgium, see Vandenbogaerde (2018).
 
45
Heirbaut (2017).
 
46
According to the president of the national order of magistrates in Belgium, in a newspaper interview in 2012. See https://​www.​nieuwsblad.​be/​cnt/​dmf20120330_​061. Meanwhile, the ministry of justice has started with so-called werklastmeting, the measurement of workload, to get objective data, but there is yet no information available on this.
 
47
Decock and Put (2012) and Hespel and Put (2014).
 
48
Decree of 15 February 2019 “betreffende het jeugddelinquentierecht”, Moniteur belge 26 April 2019.
 
49
There are now two bar associations in Belgium: the Flemish Bar Association (OVB): https://​www.​advocaat.​be/​; and the Association of French-speaking and German-speaking Bars of Belgium (OBFG): https://​avocats.​be/​fr. On the rise and fall of the national bar association, see Quintelier (2009).
 
50
One example is the former dean of the Law Faculty of the KUL (Catholic University of Leuven), Paul Van Orshoven, who pleaded for a split on the occasion of his inaugural lecture of the Francqui Chair at Ghent University. See https://​www.​gva.​be/​cnt/​aid1334959/​van-orshoven-wil-justitie-helemaal-naar-de-gemeenschappen.
 
51
On the influence of European Union Law on the Belgian judges and case law, see for instance Cariat and Nowak (2015) and Straetmans and Rozie (2012).
 
52
On the history of the Belgian cases before the European Court of Human Rights, see Lavrysen (2018).
 
54
On the history of the superior courts in Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg, see Martyn (2013).
 
55
The term “arbitration” refers in this context to the role of “arbiter” between the different entities. At that time, the politicians did not want to introduce a Constitutional court—they only wanted an instance to settle disputes of competence that could arise because of the division of competences.
 
56
The Court of Arbitration was introduced in the Belgian legal system by the Act of 9 August 1980, published in the Moniteur belge on 15 August 1980, which added a new Article 107 ter in the Belgian Constitution (now Article 142). The Act of 28 June 1983, published in the Moniteur belge on 8 July 1983, dealt with the structure, competence, and modus operandi of the new court.
 
57
This happened with the State Reform Act of 15 July 1988, published on 29 July in the Moniteur belge.
 
58
State Reform Act of 7 May 2007, published on 8 May 2007 in the Moniteur belge.
 
59
See Article 142 of the Belgian Constitution.
 
60
See Article 31 of the Special Act 6 January 1989, published 7 January 1989. The English text of this Act can be consulted on the website of the Constitutional Court: http://​www.​const-court.​be.
 
61
See Article 34 § 4 of the Special Act 6 January 1989.
 
62
See Article 32 of the Special Act 6 January 1989.
 
63
See Article 34 § 1 of the Special Act 6 January 1989.
 
64
See Chapters 1 and 2 of the Special Act of 6 January 1989. The judgments of the Constitutional Court are mostly in Dutch and French, and occasionally in German, but thanks to the Venice Commission, a number of judgments have received a translation or summary in English. They can be consulted on the website of the Constitutional Court.
 
65
See Article 3 of the Special Act 6 January 1989.
 
66
See Article 2 of the Special Act 6 January 1989.
 
67
See Article 2 of the Special Act 6 January 1989.
 
68
See Articles 19 f. of the Special Act of 6 January 1989.
 
69
See Chapter II of the Special Act of 6 January 1989.
 
70
See Article 55 of the Special Act 6 January 1989.
 
71
The limited chamber deals with a first control of the requests. See Article 69 of the Special Act of 6 January 1989.
 
72
Article 56 foresees the extended composition of the court when it has to judge matters foreseen in Articles 37, 38, 42, 43, 44, 49, 50, 100, and 122 of the Special Act of 6 January 1989.
 
74
Ibid., p. 10.
 
75
Ibid., p. 10.
 
76
Ibid., p. 14.
 
77
Ibid., p. 11.
 
78
In reality, the decisions of the Constitutional Court do have effect erga omnes.
 
79
Act of 25 December 2016, published on 10 January 2017 in the Moniteur belge.
 
80
On the implementation practice of the Belgian Constitutional Court with regard to the case law of the European Court of Human Rights, see for instance Lambrecht (2020).
 
81
Moonen (2015) and Erk (2018).
 
82
For a recent overview of the Belgian judicial structure, see Voet (2014). See also https://​www.​tribunaux-rechtbanken.​be/​fr/​tribunaux-et-cours. There are also pages in Dutch and German, but unfortunately not in English.
 
83
Taelman and Van Severen (2017) and (2018).
 
86
Ibid.
 
87
“Magistrate” (magistraat/magistrat) is the generic term in Belgium for public prosecutors (standing magistrates) and judges (sitting magistrates). Under the “civil law” systems of European countries, such as Belgium, France, Italy, and the Netherlands, magistrat (French), magistrato (Italian), and magistraat (Dutch) are generic terms that comprise both prosecutors and judges, distinguished as the “standing” versus “sitting” magistrature, respectively.
 
89
See ibid., pp. 59–61.
 
90
See ibid., p. 58.
 
91
See ibid., p. 59.
 
92
Debaenst (2013).
 
94
Taxquet v Belgium App no 926/05 (ECtHR, 13 January 2009).
 
95
Act of 21 December 2009 “tot hervorming van het hof van assisen”, Moniteur belge 11 January 2010.
 
96
The so-called second “Potpourri Act”. Act of 5 February 2016 “tot wijziging van het strafrecht en de strafvordering en houdende diverse bepalingen inzake justitie”, Moniteur belge 19 February 2016.
 
97
Constitutional Court, Arrest of 21 December 2017, nr. 148/2017, see: http://​www.​const-court.​be/​public/​n/​2017/​2017-148n.​pdf.
 
98
The procedure for a constitutional change is stipulated in Article 195 of the Constitution: “The federal legislative power has the right to declare that there are reasons to revise such constitutional provision as it determines. Following such a declaration, the two Houses are automatically dissolved. Two new Houses are then convened, in accordance with Article 46. These Houses make decisions, in common accord with the King, on the points submitted for revision. In this case, the Houses can only debate provided that at least two thirds of the members who make up each House are present; and no change is adopted unless it is supported by at least two thirds of the votes cast.”
 
100
van Droogenbroeck (2004). For an oversight of the functioning of the Court of Cassation between 1832 and 1914, see Müller (2011).
 
101
According to Matthias Van Der Haegen, a specialist on the Belgian Court of Cassation, only the Flemish sections gather with three; the French-speaking sections always gather with five. This is another example of the growing differences between the Flemish and French speaking in Belgium.
 
104
Jaumotte et al. (2012).
 
105
A first president, a president, 14 Chamber presidents, and 28 members.
 
106
There were 2637 judgments delivered in general litigation, 87 judgments delivered in litigation for annulment involving foreign nationals, and 126 judgments delivered in general litigation for annulment. See http://​www.​raadvanstate.​be/​?​page=​about_​annualreports&​lang=​nl&​q=​jaarverslag, p. 21.
 
107
On mediation in Belgium, see Taelman and Voet (2015), p. 89. On arbitration, see Bassiri and Draye (2016), den Tandt (2015) and Keutgen et al. (2015).
 
108
Van Ransbeeck (2008) and Van Dael (2008).
 
109
Moniteur belge 3 April 2001.
 
110
Moniteur belge 22 March 2005.
 
111
Moniteur belge 28 June 2013.
 
113
There are no official numbers. These numbers are taken from the following newspaper article: http://​www.​standaard.​be/​cnt/​dmf20180212_​03354193.
 
114
On the history of norm production in Belgium, see Martyn (2015).
 
115
Fromagerie Franco-Suisse Le Ski vs. Belgische Staat, Court of Cassation 27 May 1971, Arresten van het Hof van Cassatie 1971, 959. See further below (under Sect. 7).
 
116
Heirbaut (2019).
 
117
With the celebration of 200 years of Code Civil in Belgium, Dirk Heirbaut found that approximately half of the provisions were original, and the other half had been changed. See Heirbaut and Martyn (2005).
 
118
On 1 November 2020, the Act of 13 April 2019 came into force. Since that date, the original Code of 21 March 1804 has been called the “old” civil code. Also, the new regulations on proof (Chapter 8) came into force. With the Act of 19 January 2022, the new Chapter 2, title 3 (“Relatievermogensrecht”), and Chapter 4 (“Nalatenschappen, schenkingen en testamenten”) were introduced. The goal is to gradually introduce new chapters until the new civil code will consist of nine new chapters. For an overview of the progress of all the replacements, see https://​justice.​belgium.​be/​en/​node/​4419. On these reforms, see also Heirbaut et al. (2021); Heirbaut and Bruyère (2022).
 
119
Matthijs et al. (2005).
 
121
The Flemish were against Brussels as a separate region, while the French speaking were pro. The explanation for this difference is simple: the French speaking constitute the majority in Brussels. As a compromise, the Flemish agreed on Brussels as a separate region, but not on the same level as the two other regions. This was visualized in the following terminology: Brussels legislation was called ordinances instead of decrees, which was considered inferior by the Flemish. On the contrary, the French speaking always considered Brussels a fully worthy region and that ordinances are equal to decrees. It is a typical example of a “Belgian compromise”, in which both parties get what they want through different interpretations of an agreement.
 
122
Peeters and Mosselmans (2017).
 
123
Articles 8–32 (on the rights and freedoms of the Belgians), Article 143, §1 (the principle of federal loyalty), Articles 170 and 172 (legality and equality of taxes), and Article 191 (protection of foreign nationals).
 
124
See the recent PhD research of Matthias Van Der Haegen, who has demonstrated this for the Court of Cassation. Formally, this Court only “finds” the law, but in practice, it is complementary to the legislator, by creating law in the case of legislative lacunae. Van Der Haegen (2020).
 
125
This was the text of the old Article 4 of the Civil Code.
 
126
Martyn (2017).
 
127
On the history of the justices of the peace, see Martyn (2011). See also Debaenst (2017).
 
128
Rotthier (2018), Chapter 5, pp. 35–38.
 
129
Access to justice has been accepted as a general principle of law in the Belgian case law as part of the right to a fair trial. See https://​fra.​europa.​eu/​sites/​default/​files/​fra_​uploads/​1522-access-to-justice-2011-country-BE.​pdf.
 
130
Debaenst (2021).
 
131
Parmentier (2016), p. 87.
 
132
Lesaffer (2004).
 
133
Parmentier and Vervaeke (2011).
 
134
Parmentier (2016), p. 88.
 
136
See, for instance, the federal research project on the Sociopolitical History of Justice administration in Belgium (1795–2005). https://​www.​belspo.​be/​belspo/​fedra/​proj.​asp?​l=​en&​COD=​P6%2F01. This boosted scientific research on the history of justice in Belgium. See Heirbaut et al. (2015).
 
139
Boudrez and De Smet (2002).
 
140
Debaenst (2013).
 
141
Vander Laenen et al. (2013).
 
142
Van der Haegen (2020).
 
143
Parmentier (2004).
 
144
Debaenst (2010).
 
145
For the judicial treatment of women in legal history, see Heirbaut (2021); for the judicial treatment of minors, see Dupont-Bouchat et al. (2014).
 
146
Marckx v. Belgium App no 6833/74 (ECtHR, 13 June 1979). See also Debaenst (2011).
 
147
See Witte et al. (2005).
 
148
Populier and Van de Heyning (2019).
 
149
Van Hoecke and Vandenbogaerde (2017).
 
150
Martyn (2006).
 
151
Kruithof (2018).
 
152
For a number of historical and contemporary examples, see Debaenst and Delbecke (2014).
 
153
With thanks to Matthias Van Der Haegen for this information.
 
154
Debaenst (2012).
 
155
In addition, one can often find some more information on the advice of the public ministry (by the advocaat-generaal/avocat-général).
 
156
Although judges have to be careful not to motivate their judgment by saying that they decided so “because the Court of Cassation said so.” This would be a violation of article 6 of the Judicial Code.
 
157
Van Hoecke and Vandenbogaerde (2017).
 
158
See judgment of 19 September 1983, where the Court of Cassation decided: “attendue que si le principe de l’exécution de bonne foi des conventions, consacré par l’article 1134 du Code civil…”. Arr. Cass. 1983–84, 52. However, one has to be careful: a general principle is only binding if the Court of Cassation explicitly has accepted a principle as general principle.
 
159
In 1473, Duke Charles the Bold installed his judicial council in Mechlin, where it took the name “Great Council of Mechlin”. His daughter Mary of Burgundy had to abolish it in 1477 on the occasion of the issuing of the Great Privilige, but it was reinstalled in 1504 by her son Philip the Fair. It was abolished during the French Revolution.
 
160
Curtis (2013).
 
161
With “state”, I refer to the different parts of the Netherlands (counties, duchies, etc.), which continued to exist until the end of the Ancien Régime.
 
162
The local customs were first written down and then inspected (and changed) by the central institutions. They were then issued as authentic legislation.
 
163
In 2017, the Universities of Ghent and Liège celebrated their 200th anniversary. For the commemoration book of the law faculties, see Cools et al. (2019).
 
164
The Catholic University had been founded in 1834 in Mechlin but moved to Leuven in 1835. It considers itself the successor of the old Catholic University of Leuven, which was founded in 1425 but was closed down by the French rulers in 1797.
 
165
To be more precise: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven), Universiteit Gent (UGent), Vrije Universiteit Brussels (VUB), Universiteit Antwerpen (UA), Universiteit Hasselt (UHasselt), Université de Liège (ULiège), Université catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Université de Namur (UNamur), Université de Mons (UMons), and Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB).
 
166
There were also 181 and 434 students registered in special programs for students who already have a degree, bringing the total to 14,711 students who were studying in the academic year 2020–2021 at the Flemish Law Faculties. See https://​onderwijs.​vlaanderen.​be/​nl/​onderwijsstatist​ieken/​statistisch-jaarboek/​statistisch-jaarboek-van-het-vlaams-onderwijs-2020-2021.
 
167
The first female students started studying law at the end of the nineteenth century, but they would remain a small minority until the last quarter of the twentieth century. As can be seen in the figures, they are nowadays far in the majority. For an oversight of the feminization of the legal professions, see Schandevyl (2015); for the history of women in the magistracy, see Schandevyl (2016).
 
169
For an initial period of 3 years, which can be prolonged with 5-year periods.
 
173
On the history of the notaries in Belgium, see Stevens (2015).
 
175
See https://​www.​huissiersdejusti​ce.​be/​; on the history of this occupation, see Vandenbogaerde and Lemoine (2015).
 
176
See https://​hrj.​be/​admin/​storage/​hrj/​jaarverslag-2020.​pdf, p. 10. All the numbers mentioned in this paragraph have been taken from this report.
 
179
On the history of the advocacy in Belgium, see Martyn and Quintelier (2015).
 
182
For an oversight of the influence of international law in the Belgian legal culture, see Wouters and Van Eeckhoutte (2006).
 
183
See for instance the case of the medieval commercial metropole Bruges, cfr. Dumolyn and Brown (2018).
 
184
Fromagerie Franco-Suisse Le Ski vs. Belgische Staat.
 
185
Bribosia (1996).
 
186
Gors (2005), p. 509; Lavrysen and Theunis (2013).
 
187
European law has a huge influence on Belgian law. For private law, see Samoy et al. (2012); for administrative law, see Wauters et al. (2014); for constitutional law, see regarding federalism Feyen (2013).
 
188
Marckx v Belgium.
 
189
Salduz v Turkey App no 36391/02 (ECtHR, 27 November 2008).
 
190
Act of 31 March 1987, Moniteur belge 27 May 1987.
 
191
Act of 13 August 2011, Moniteur belge 5 september 2011.
 
192
This was in the judgment of the famous Case 6-64 Costa v ENEL [1964]. On the relationship between the Belgian courts and the European Court of Justice, see Populier (2012).
 
193
See Heirbaut and Storme (2006).
 
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Metadata
Title
An Introduction to Belgian Legal Culture
Author
Bruno Debaenst
Copyright Year
2023
Book
Handbook on Legal Cultures

Print ISBN: 978-3-031-27744-3

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-031-27745-0

Copyright Year: 2023

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27745-0_5