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2023 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

An Introduction to Swedish Legal Culture

Author : Axel Jonsson

Published in: Handbook on Legal Cultures

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Sweden can be framed as a history of ambiguity, making the law of the realm a natural part of what is often referred to as a Nordic mixed legal system. Civil law ideas are combined with typical common law elements, topped with traces of legal engineering of the welfare state. Any compromise seems possible. This chapter explores the Swedish legal culture in a heuristic manner, focused particularly on finding historical and structural explanations to the open-ended legal method, sometimes seen as way to define and demarcate Swedish law. A case study of the Girjas judgement provide a contemporary and momentary picture of the broad range of sources that can be referred to by Swedish Supreme Court Justices when justifying their decisions. Contextual elements are therefore used primarily to explain how the most important legal sources are reproduced, valued, and interrelate. Possible explanations to the plurality of sources are found in the long and evolutionary development of legal institutions and practices. Old and established national structures have seldomly been fully abolished, but rather complemented by new, sometimes contradictory, influences. The result is a combination of many ideas, reflected both in the evolution of constitutional structures and in the legal method. The conclusion is that the combination of critical and flexible attitudes towards law will likely keep tempering any effort to institutionalise thorough and enduring doctrinal harmony in the Swedish legal culture.

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previous chapter An Introduction to Spanish Legal Culture

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Childs (1936).

Zetterberg (1984), p. 85, on further aspects of moderation in Swedish law, see also Sandström (2005b) p. 292, 307, and Modéer (2019), p. 414.

Svenska akademiens ordbok (1939), ‘lagom’. This suggestion is historically supported by the phrasing of the Uppland Act (Upplandslagen, byalagsbalken), literally stating that land shall be built by law, ‘land skulu mæd laghum byggias’, as cited in Hultman (1916), p. 125.

See, e.g. Riksarkivet (1886), Riksrådets protokoll, 5 June 1634, p. 144.

‘For contraries destroy one another, and extremes are contrary both to one another and to the middle; for the middle is in relation to either extreme the other extreme: for instance, the equal is greater than less but less than greater’. Aristotle et al. (2014), p. 47.

Winge (2008).

Sweden, and the Nordic Countries are often represented at the top of international benchmarking indexes of economic competitiveness, see, e.g. The World Competitiveness Ranking 2021, published by the Institute for Management Development, in which Sweden ranked number 2, after Switzerland and before Denmark, https://www.imd.org/centers/world-competitiveness-center/rankings/world-competitiveness/.

Sunde (2020), p. 27.

On the distinction legal order—legal system, see Tuori (2016), p. 121.

Sandström (2007), p. 476.

‘Du gamla, du friska, du fjällhöga nord’, lyrics by Richard Dybeck, Teigen et al. (1992).

Dąbrowski Mazurka (Poland is not yet lost) lyrics and melody by Józef Wybicki, Trochimczyk (2022).

The lessons are all based on my free interpretations and contextualisation, and by no means imply that this was the original intended meaning of the cited wording as authored by Dybeck.

See, e.g. Koch (this volume), Sect. 1.2.

See, e.g. Kjølstad et al. (this volume), Sect. 3.2.

Pihlajamäki (2019), pp. 479–481.

Ibid., p. 481.

Teigen et al. (1992), p. 66.

Ibid., p. 70.

Pihlajamäki (2019), p. 479.

Hereafter, the terms statutes and special legislation are used interchangeably as opposed both to general comprehensive codes and to constitutional legislation.

Bengtsson et al. (1994), p. 31.

Häthén (2014), p. 81–84.

Ibid., p. 92.

Hereafter, The Instrument of Government, Kungörelse om beslutad ny regeringsform (SFS 1974:152).

While Häthen has described the power shifts between King and parliament as pendulum movements Nils Hertliz describe the transition to the Age of Liberty as the big turns, de stora välvningarna, thus both authors are using similar smooth geometrical metaphors, see Häthén (2014), p. 154 and Herlitz (1964), p. 147.

Herlitz (1964), pp. 166–169.

Montesquieu (1952).

Herlitz (1964), p. 184, see also, Lagerroth (1965).

Herlitz (1964), pp. 166–169, 185.

Ibid, pp. 181, 190.

See Sterzel (2009), pp. 17, 18, see also, Modeer (1997), p. 15.

Forced to signed the Treaty of Kiel in 1814, the King of Denmark-Norway ceded Norway to the newly appointed King Karl XIV Johan of Sweden. The Norwegians were not happy with the decision and refused to enforce it. A short war between Sweden and Norway was fought in 1814, resulting in the formation of another Scandinavian union, the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway (1814–1905).

Teigen et al. (1992), p. 276.

Violent Swedish popular protests did take place in both the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Although more than 18 people were killed in Stockholm in March 1848, the uprising, inspired by prior European events, are seldomly described in revolutionary terms, but are rather characterised as, marsoroligheterna [the March Riots], see Berglund (2009), pp. 417–424.

Vik et al. (2018), p. 195.

Fredrik Sterzel has even called time before the new constitution ‘the half century without a constitution’, det författningslösa halvseklet, referring to a timespan of 50–70 years in which the constitution was de facto subordinate to politics, Sterzel (2009), p. 29.

On the distinction political—judicial constitutionalism, see, e.g. Gardbaum (2013).

Lewin (2002), p. 14, see also Bengtsson et al. (1994), Bull (2014), p. 12.

The Riksdag of the Estates evolved into a bicameral (1866) and later a unicameral Swedish parliament (1971) which means the institutions should not be treated as functional equals without some historical sensibility, on the two reforms, see Herlitz (1964), p. 237 and Sterzel (2009), p. 19.

The candidates by no means aspire to describe a complex reality, but rather function as thematic structures for reflections on historical and present ideas on Swedish legal development.

Ortwein (2003), p. 405.

See Ervasti (2018), p. 227, Nylund (2021a) and Sunde (2021), p. 51.

In 2018, the reported incoming Swedish cases civil cases per 100,000 inhabitants to the courts of first instance was 0.627 compared to European median 2.23. On criminal cases, Sweden reported 0.953 cases compared to the European median 1.62, CEPEJ (2020), p. 89.

In 2018, Sweden reported incoming 1.635 administrative cases per 100,000 inhabitants, compared to the European median of 0.33, ibid.

Nylund (2019).

See with further references, Hansen (2018), p. 275 and Numhauser-Henning (2010), p. 344.

Dahlqvist (2020).

On modern Swedish relationship between self-regulation and law, see Peterson (2001).

Act of Judicial Procedure in Labour Disputes, lag om rättergången i arbetstvister (SFS 1974:371), Chapter 3, Article 3.

The other detached court is The Foreign Intelligence Court, Försvarsunderrättelsedomstolen which only issues permit for signal intelligence to investigate threats to national security, after request by a government agency, National Defence Radio Establishment, Försvarets radioanstalt (FRA). Only surveillance on international circumstances is accepted, see Lagen om Försvarsunderrättelsedomstol (SFS 2009:966).

Under the Act on Civil Procedure in Labour Disputes, lagen (1974: 371) om rättegången i arbetstvister, Chapter 2, Article 1, para 4, the Labour Court always, regardless of the status of the parties, has jurisdiction as the first and only court in disputes on collective actions, as specified in the Act on Co-determination in the Workplace, lagen (1976:580) om medbestämmande i arbetslivet, Articles 41, 41b and 41c. The preparatory works confer jurisdiction to the Labour Court on any dispute on collective actions, although such disputes are very seldomly raised without connection the labour market parties, see Prop 1991/92:84, pp. 24–25.

Case C-438/05 International Transport Workers’ Federation, Finnish Seamen’s Union v Viking Line ABP, OÜ Viking Line Eesti, judgment 11 Desember 2007 and Case C-341/05 Laval un Partneri Ltd v Svenska Byggnadsarbetareförbundet and Others, 18 Desember 2007.

Ibid, para 3.

See Bull (2014), pp. 20–21.

The Code of 1734, Book of Enforcement, Utsökningsbalken, Chapter 4, para 15.

Bengtsson et al. (1994), p. 532.

Bergman et al. (2017).

See Lindell (2007), p. 180.

Allmänna reklamationsnämnden, https://www.arn.se/om-arn/statistik/.

Directive 2013/11/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2013 on alternative dispute resolution for consumer disputes and amending Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 and Directive 2009/22/EC (Directive on consumer ADR), and lagen om alternativ tvistlösning i konsumentförhållanden (SFS 2015:671).

Lindblom (2010), p. 205.

Nylund (2021b), p. 9.

Directive 2008/52/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008, on certain aspects of mediation in civil and commercial matters, for the Nordic countries see Lindell (2007), pp. 180–185 and Nylund et al. (2018).

Lagen (2011:860) om medling i vissa privaträttsliga tvister, see further Lindell (2007), p. 175.

Lagen (2011:860) om medling i vissa privaträttsliga tvister, Article 7.

Code of Judicial Procedure, rättegångsbalken (SFS 1942:740), Chapter 42, Article 17.

Code of Judicial Procedure, Chapter 42, Article 6, pt. 5.

SOU (2007:26), p. 107.

When court connected mediation was proposed by a commission of inquiry, the government refrained from presenting such a solution in the government bill in 2010, stressing the role of courts to apply law, Prop. 2010/11:128, p. 23.

See Lindblom (2010), p. 203.

The chambers are not specialized, and since 2009, the Supreme Court itself decides whether and how to organise itself in chambers, see Prop. 2008/2009:117, pp. 22–23.

Modéer (2009), p. 151.

Prop. (1971:45), pp. 5, 38.

Strömholm (1984), p. 933.

Prop. (2007:08), p. 22.

The 1809 Instrument of Government, Articles 1 and 4 confer the right to govern, styra, the Kingdom to the Monarch. Article 87 divided the legislative power between the King and the Parliament.

See, e.g. Lagerroth (1965), Strömholm (2001), p. 28, Derlén and Lindholm (2016), p. 138.

Therefore division of powers is hereafter used instead of separation of powers, since the first term better describe most parliamentary systems, including Sweden, in which the institutional independence of three supposed state branches is weak, such as, e.g. a considerable overlap of personnel, See Sajó and Uitz (2017), pp. 132–133.

Nordquist (2001), p. 240.

See Herlitz (1964), p. 274 and especially Zamboni (2019).

Prop. (1908:37), p. 68.

Interestingly enough, Finland limited the jurisdiction of its administrative court on recommendations given by the Swedish civil servant, Hjalmar Hammarskjöld, when drafting the Swedish bill, while Sweden in the end did not limit the substantive scope to legality, see Förhandlingarna vid det 39:e nordiska juristmötet i Stockholm 18–19 augusti 2011: Del 1 (2012), p. 632.

See Smith (2011), pp. 625–626. Two exceptions deserve to be mentioned, in which only legality review is allowed. First, appeal of municipal decisions, kommunalbesvär, and second, administrative judicial review, rättsprövning, means strict legality control of administrative decisions, the latter introduced to comply with European standards of access to justice, to which I will return to in Sect. 8 Internationalisation.

the Instrument of Government, Chapter 1, Article 1 and Chapter 2, Article 1, paras 1 and 2.

Holmström (1994), p. 155.

Förhandlingarna vid det 39:e nordiska juristmötet i Stockholm 18–19 augusti 2011: Del 1 (2012), p. 632.

The Code on Administrative Procedure, förvaltningprocesslagen (SFS 1971:291), Article 8.

The Instrument of Government, Chapter 1, Article 1.

However, two important complementary conflict resolvers within public law could be mentioned. The the Chancellor of Justice, Justitiekanslern (JK) is today supervising compliance with legality in public administration and representing the state in court, e.g. as the sole prosecutor in freedom of speech cases and as an advocate in civil cases where the state is involved. The Parliamentary Ombudsman, Justitieombudsmannen (JO) represents the parliament, and supervise the legality of other public bodies. The documents produced by the ombudsmen are sometimes cited by the courts, see, e.g. NJA 2020 s. 227, paras. 11, 17 and 19.

The Instrument of Government, Chapter 11, Article 14.

Later regulated in The Instrument of Government, Chapter 12, Article 10.

On the constitutional role of the Nordic supreme courts, see Sunnqvist (2021) and Zamboni (2019).

Fundamental rights protection will generally motivate a more critical assessment, see Sunnqvist (2021), p. 180.

As to date, a majority of the Supreme Court Justices have previously served at the Government Offices or the Ministry of Justice, according to their curricula published at the official website of the court, see https://www.domstol.se/hogsta-domstolen/justitierad/.

Valguarnera (2015), p. 213.

The Instrument of Government, the Freedom of the Press Act, tryckfrihetsförordningen (1949:105), the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression, yttrandefrihetsgrundlagen (SFS 1991:1469), The Act of Succession, succesionsordingen (1810:0926).

The Instrument of Government, Chapter 8, Article 19 and lagen om kungörande av lagar och andra författningar (SFS 1976:633).

See Boucht (2014), passim.

100

See also Sandström (2007), p. 483.

190

The condition was likely introduced during the oral hearing, since the claim is neither expressed in the appeal to the Supreme Court, Staten genom justitiekanslern, Överklangade, 3360-09-5, JK, 15 February 2018, nor in the documents which the state used to support its claims in court, Mål T853-18; State genom Justitiekanslern./. Girjas Sameby och v.v., HD, Aktbilaga 56, 3 December 2018.

191

The Swedish government has later interpreted the Girja cases in line with JK, by stating that the disputed provision of the Reindeer Herding Act are generally unapplicable to other similar properties and has appointed a committee to propose revised legislation, see Dir. 2021:35.

192

Heikki Pihlajamäki has suggested that such features of pragmatism in American and Scandinavian traditions have created similar institutional and intellectual preconditions for the realist turn in the early twentieth century, Pihlajamäki (2004), p. 487, see also Sunde (2021), p. 61.

193

Sunde (2021), pp. 59–60.

194

The Code of Administrative Procedure, förvaltningsprocesslagen (SFS 1971:291), Article 9.

195

The Freedom of the Press Act, Chapter 9, Article 2, and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression, Chapter 7, Article 1.

196

Nergelius (2010), p. 85.

197

In the appellate courts, both general and administrative, the required number of professional judges are higher and lay judges are only required to participate if specifically prescribed. Neither of the Supreme Courts operate with lay judges.

198

Prop. (2005/06:180), p. 23.

199

Ibid., p. 20.

200

The Code of Judicial Procedure, rättegångsbalken, Chapter 4, Article 6, Para 3.

201

See Modéer (2010), p. 62.

202

CEPEJ (2020), p. 69.

203

Ibid., p. 46.

204

Sunde (2021), pp. 59, 60.

205

On the development of legal education around the late nineteenth century, see Croon and Stockholms universitet Juridiska (2018), Chapter 3, especially pp. 157–158.

206

Only the public universities in Gothenburg, Karlstad, Lund, Stockholm, Umeå, Uppsala and Örebro are entitled to issue the official law degree.

207

The Higher Education Ordinance, högskoleöforordningen (SFS 1993:100), Annex 2.

208

Loc. cit.

209

Evidently, conflicts between the EU law and national law do occur such as the case Åklagaren v Hans Åkerberg Fransson, previously discussed in Sect. 3.1.

210

Bernitz (2021).

211

Åklagaren v Hans Åkerberg Fransson, Case C-617/10, ECJ, Grand Chamber, 26 February 2013.

212

Schaffer (2021).

213

ECtHR (2021).

214

Sporrong and Lönnroth v Sweden, App no. 7151/75; 7152/75, ECtHR, 23 September 1982.

215

Svenska Dagbladet, ‘Europadomstolen Petréns lekstuga’‚ 29 September1983, front page.

216

Riksdagens protokoll (1983/84:5), p. 68.

217

Palme (1983).

218

Vik et al. (2018), p. 193.

219

Lagen om rättsprövning av vissa förvaltningsbeslut (SFS 1988:205).

220

On strengthened Nordic courts in European context, see, e.g. Sunnqvist (2021) and Melin (2014).

221

Eyerman (2011).

222

Hradilova Selin (2021).

223

Marshall and Coscarelli (2022).

224

Hradilova Selin (2021), p. 72.

225

Utvisning på grund av brott—ett skärpt regelverk, Lagrådsremiss, 10 February 2022.

226

The government platform, agreed upon in October 2022 by four liberal and conservative parties (including the Sweden Democrats), devote almost half (29) of the pages (62) to migration and criminality, governed by a strong law and order approach, see Tidöavtalet: Överenskommelse för Sverige (2022), https://www.liberalerna.se/wp-content/uploads/tidoavtalet-overenskommelse-for-sverige-slutlig.pdf.

227

Rydgren and Tyrberg (2020).

228

See, e.g. Skriftlig fråga (2020/21:3414).

229

Especially Denmark seems to be a new prominent source of international inspiration, see Tidöavtalet (supra 224), pp. 18, 27 and 41.

230

See Bull (2014).

231

See Hirschl (2011), p. 464 with further references.

232

Since 1986, the SOM-institute at the University of Gothenburg has annually studied the general popular confidence in Swedish institutions. The last report shows lower confidence in government and parliament, and higher confidence in the courts and especially in the police, both since 1986 and 2010. While 43% of the respondents in 2020 considered themselves having high or quite high confidence in the government and parliament respectively, 51% considered themselves having high or quite high confidence in the courts and 71% in the police, Falk (2021), pp. 5–10, 35–39.

233

A peculiar example of a shift towards a stronger justice system is the change of statute of limitation (prescriptive period) for murder, which was removed in 2010, less than a year before the unresolved murder of Olof Palme otherwise would have been prescribed. More recently, the access to reduction of penalty for young criminals has been limited and a majority of the parliament support a total remove of reductions for criminals aged 18–20, see 2021/22:JuU5, pp. 6–7.

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Title: An Introduction to Swedish Legal Culture
Author: Axel Jonsson
Publisher: Springer International Publishing
Book: Handbook on Legal Cultures
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-27744-3

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-031-27745-0

Copyright Year: 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27745-0_24