Bio-manufactured Nanomaterials

Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary field and deals the advancements in engineering, physics, chemistry, and biology. Nanobiotechnology connects nanotechnology and biology and plays an important role in medicine, agriculture and food processing, and molecular electronics. Nano-biotechnology pays considerable attention to constructing devices and biological systems at the atomic level, which is useful for many applications, especially in healthcare and pharmaceuticals. The advancement of nanotechnology in every sector depends on newly invented nanomaterials that lead all sectors because of their unique properties. The incorporation of biological subjects with nanoparticles plays vital role in fields such as drug delivery, diagnostics, cosmetic agents, tissue engineering, and agriculture. This chapter reviews the different nanomaterials that are contributing to the nanobiotechnology fields of medicine, tissue engineering, and agriculture.

Quantum-dot-based photoelectrochemical (Q-dot PEC) biosensors shows exceptional characteristics features: they have high sensitivity, are easy to operate, do not require expensive instruments, are low cost, have a wide linearity range, achieve rapid detection, and need low background current. The Q-dots immobilized on the conducting electrode act as a working electrode, on platinum act as a counter electrode and silver/silver chloride, and on saturated KCl act as reference electrode in q-dot-based PEC biosensor, whereas Q-dots commonly act as light-sensitized material and create electron-hole pairs and enhance the amplitude of the output signal. Q-dots have a tunable band gap and tune the band gap energy by modifying the size of Q-dots. Tunable band gap materials could be tuned to harvest a wide range of light including ultraviolet, visible, and the infrared region of the spectrum to switch the sensor to higher sensitivity. In this chapter we reviewed the general principles of Q-dot-based PEC biosensors, assembling methods, and progress of their recent applications.

The occurrence of infectious diseases has been reached an alarming level globally. Among a variety of life-threatening diseases, bacterial-borne diseases are most common. Though significant advancements are made against several bacterial infections, the rate of mortality and morbidity still remains high due to the resistance caused by bacteria to antibiotics virtually used for their treatment. Therefore, in an era of increasing bacterial resistance to classical antibacterial agents, the development of new strategies to identify and develop next-generation antibacterial agents has become an imperative need of the day to sustain the battle against the pathogenic bacteria. Recently, metal oxide-based nanoparticles such as Ag₂O, TiO₂, CuO, ZnO, CaO, and MgO have gained considerable consideration among researchers because of their potential antimicrobial performance against pathogenic bacteria. The main advantage associated with the metal oxide nanoparticle is that it offers a high surface to volume ratio due to its low particle size, which can easily bind with the active site of the disease-causing biomolecules and microorganisms. Thus, research on the antimicrobial abilities of metal oxide nanoparticles are constantly expanding and eye-catching to find new antimicrobial agents as an alternative against resistant bacteria.

Nanomaterial-based medications have a wealth of potential innovative clinical applications, representing possible solutions for long-standing clinical challenges whether considering congenital or acquired diseases. Effective translation into practice depends on a focused, ethically aware and cooperative approach to the development, characterization and assessment of the novel developed materials. For crossing the bridge between the lab and the patients in need of solutions, either human or animal, it is as important to understand the unique challenges posed as it is foreseeing the future applications.

The past few decades have seen revolutions in the applications of nanomaterials in different walks of science. One of the significant applications in healthcare is the use of nanoparticles (NP) in killing both free floating and biofilm forming bacteria. Several nanoparticles like CuO, Fe₃O₄, TiO₂, ZnO, MgO and Al₂O₃ NPs have been proven to achieve this feature with varying efficacies. A more advanced and efficient way to disrupt bacterial biofilms is the use of nanocomposite (NC) materials to eliminate bacteria. Along with various metal oxides, materials like graphene and chitosan can also be used to create various types of NC. One of the biggest advantages of NP and NC over antibiotics is their ability to circumvent the problem of bacterial resistance. The mechanisms by which NC disrupts biofilms, synthesis and characterization of NC and their relative advantages and limitations are discussed in this chapter. With the ever-increasing incidences of diseases caused by multidrug resistant and biofilm forming bacteria, there is an urgent need to devise materials like nanocomposites with a broader spectrum of action.

Progress in the area of nano-biotechnology has been resulted in the synthesis and modulation of nanomaterials, which have been globally used in the fields of agricultural, biomedicine, environment, and optics. However, various physiochemical procedures employed to synthesize metal nanoparticles (MNPs) are costly and bring about biosphere pollution due to the heavy metals. Biogenic synthesis of MNPs hold enormous potential as sustainable, green, cost-effective, and eco-friendly tool that does not require toxins, harsh chemicals, and input of high energy which are essentially required for physiochemical synthesis. Thus living systems can be used as convenient and sustainable nano-factories. Many plants and microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, yeast, virus, algae, and human cell lines have been explored for their ability to synthesize MNPs. Recently, considerable attention is given to engineered nanomaterials which can be further used for the development of diagnostic modalities and novel therapeutics for mankind. This chapter is based on living organisms and mechanisms involved in biogenic green synthesis of MNPs and their potential implication in the field of biomedicine present scenario and future prospects.

Nanotechnology is a rapidly growing area and has allowed for significant breakthroughs in bioengineering and medical fields. One of the key components in nanotechnology is the presence of nanomaterials. Tissue engineering is one of the areas that have been heavily benefited/influence by nanotechnology. This chapter aims to review the different types of nanomaterial based bioscaffolds, their characterization and the recent advances and milestones in the application of these bioscaffolds to various areas of medicine. The use of cutting-edge technologies to bioengineer nanomaterials that can induce desired biological effects will also be briefly discussed. Finally, concluding remarks on future perspectives have been summarized.

Nanotechnology is one of the most developing sciences in the current century. The utilization of this new technology in the diagnosis and treatment of some ailment, including cancer, is pivotal in the biomedical field. However, very limited approvals have been approached to use nanomaterials in the medical field. The toxicity and safety issues are essential concerns when scientists gain the outcomes of the nanoparticle application. A broad range of investigations has been undertaken to assess in vivo and in vitro toxicity for various nanomaterials. In this chapter, we summarized the most recent outcomes of the nanomaterials toxicity investigates. Generally, more effort needs to be conducted to reach a wise decision about the use of the safest formulation of nanoparticles in the treatment of human cancer. Nevertheless, ligand-specific nanoparticles seem to be the best option for the development of nanomaterials as a treatment preference for human cancers. Despite the outcomes of different in vitro and in vivo experiments, there is an essential need for unifying the experimental approaches to reach the right conclusions to establish nanomaterial toxicity.

Nanoparticles have numerous applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine involving DNA transfection, cell patterning, viral transduction, gene delivery, improvement of mechanical, electrical, and biological properties of scaffolds (Hasan et al., Int J Nanomed 13:5637–5655, 2018), effective delivery of biomolecule, tracking of cell in vivo, as well as stem-cell therapy (Hosseini, Principles of regenerative medicine, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2019). The utilization of the correct kind of nanoparticles in the tissue engineering can upgrade the electrical, mechanical, and biological characteristics of scaffolds to the greater extent and can perform several other functions based on different applications (Hasan et al., Int J Nanomed 13:5637–5655, 2018). Moreover, utilization of nanofabrication methods has numerous advantages in tissue engineering. The formation of nanopatterns, nanofibers, as well as controlled release of nanoparticles by using nanotechnology introduces many applications in tissue engineering including imitating local tissues as biomaterials to be built is of the size of nanometer, for example, cardiovascular tissue, bone marrow, extracellular liquids, and so on (Chung et al., Expert Opin Drug Discov 2(12):1653–1668, 2007). This chapter aims to throw light on the applications of nanomaterials in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, highlighting the most promising and widely used nanomaterials used for the purpose.

Nanotechnology is emerging as a potential domain in health sciences that has attracted researchers to a great extent. It has revolutionized the field of dentistry with its enormous and widespread applications. The chapter focuses on the diagnostic applications of nanosciences in the biofilm-dependent oral diseases and oral cancer. The use of various nanoparticles such as gold, quantum dots, silver, nanoscale cantilevers, and single-wall carbon nanotubes for diagnostic imaging, immunological assays, targeted drug delivery systems, photothermal, and photodynamic therapy has been discussed. The commonly used technologies such as nanoelectromechanical systems, nanotexturing, optical biosensor, and bio-barcode assay with their applications have been appraised. Novel strategies in the prevention of biofilms, dental caries, and periodontal diseases are deliberated. The chapter also highlights the therapeutic role of nanoparticles in remineralization of tooth defects and repair of microcavities affecting enamel and dentin. The wide applications of nanoparticles in restorative, endodontic, and other interceptive dentistry arenas are reflected in this chapter. The current progress, prospects, and potential future applications with utilization of innovative nanorobots, anesthesia, nanomaterials, needles, bone replacement, etc. have been reviewed.

The field of nanotechnology has progressed rapidly over the past decade and has found interest and varied applications in the field of computing, electronics, biology and medicine. It has not only shown a promising impact on drug delivery and imaging techniques but also found its way to regenerative medicine. Nanotechnology is beneficial due to its ability to target and treat chronic human diseases by a precise delivery system.

Due to their small size nanoparticles have the potential to cross various biological barriers within the body. Nanotechnology is advantageous due to its ability to produce products with desirable characteristics and ability to induce desired pharmacological responses in drug delivery systems. Though its impact seems to be promising in the pharmacy sector, their applications on humans and their impact on the surrounding ecosystem still needs attention due to the toxic effects produced by them.

However, toxicology of particulate matter differs from the toxicology of substances as the composing substances may or may not be soluble in biological matrices, thus influencing the potential exposure of various internal organs. To understand the advantages and disadvantages of different nanomaterials, their toxicity information should be compared by characterizing each material. The physical characteristics like size, shape, aggregation/agglomeration state, aggregates/clusters and the surface area should be taken into consideration while performing toxicity studies and assessment of risk to human ecosystems. This review chapter will throw light upon the various aspects of biosafety and toxicity of nanomaterials for drug and gene delivery systems.

The usage of biological origin sources in the manufacturing of nanoscaled materials has become a trend in the nanosciences and nanotechnology fields. But this is no coincidence, since in the last years, the pollution originated worldwide has become a hassle as well as a serious urgent topic, this aspect also includes debris from nanomaterials synthesized with hazardous reactants and complex methods. Accordingly, researchers have devoted efforts in the development of methodologies that involve to a great extent, avoiding the usage of high pressures, energy and temperature in order to promote saving energy approaches. Among the reactants that can be used for the making of nanomaterials; biomolecules, proteins, peptides, nucleic acids, and biowaste can be mentioned. These cannot be used directly in their raw form but have to be modified in order to be used as templates; reducing, stabilizing, and complexing agents, for instance. It is remarkable to note that these bionanomaterials have a great potential since they possess diverse characteristics such as biocompatibility, biological activities, biodegradability, and can be used in biosensing, theranostics, biomedicine, and other areas related to nanobiotechnology. The future perspective on these materials is good and promising, there is hope in the fact that some nanoformulations have been already approved for clinical use as well as the creation of small companies dedicated to the development and synthesis of bionanomaterials. These events set the tone for the growth of the nanotechnology industry in the near future.

Agriculture plays a major role in meeting livelihood and contributes to the GDP of a country. The various techniques conventionally used in farming are highly input demanding methods and are insufficient to meet the challenges faced by agriculture industry. The methods followed in conventional agriculture sector depend on extensive usage of resources in the form of land as well as capital, widespread application of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, etc. These practices have caused pollution to the environment, soil and ground water, as well as health issues to farming community to a severe extend. It is high time to incorporate modern and smart technologies in agriculture industry to preserve our ecosystem without compromising crop production. Precision farming and Controlled Environment Agriculture are the ideal concepts that are introduced which propose maximum production with optimum utilization of resources. The science of nano-biotechnology is the prospective and ultimate tool for creating revolutionary transformations in the current scenario in agriculture industry there by fulfilling the dream notions of precision farming to make sustainable agricultural fields. This chapter highlights the importance and scope of nanotechnology and its applications in agriculture, precision farming, biosynthesis and properties of nanomaterials, nanobiosensors, smart delivery system of nano-fertilizers, bio-fertilizers and nano-pesticides .

Bio-nanomaterials have been widely tested and applied in medicine as cargo/adjuvants for chemotherapeutics and prophylactic chemotherapeutics or vaccines. Extensive list of bio-nanomaterials mediated by various microorganisms, plants, cell lines, and biological molecules have been tested against pathogens and diseases of public and animal health significance. However, due to some hurdles, the efficient industrialization of these models is still lacking. The unification and optimization of laboratory-scale models can lead to more harmonized clinical applications. This chapter highlights the areas of promising medical applications as well as the way forward to adequate commercialization of bio-nanotechnology.

Nanomaterials contribution in biomedical applications is the most appreciable research in recent years. Prominent biological characteristics and their applications are the main reason for these research developments. Many medical researches, especially anticancer drug delivery system, drug formulation, diagnosis devices are mainly focusing the nanomaterials. Cancer is the one of the deadliest diseases in the world. Biomaterials are the basic remedies for the cancer therapy, but advanced biomaterials in the nano-form made significant progress than normal biomaterials. In past few years, many organic and inorganic nanomaterials have developed for the cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. These nanomaterials are considered to be good carriers for drug molecules. In this chapter, we first provide a brief description about the production of the various nanomaterials like gold, platinum, silver, titanium oxide, iron oxide silica, polymeric nanoparticles. And also, we discussed the key properties of nanomaterials, such as size, surface properties, and cancer targeting. The major objective of this discussion is to give the better understanding about the role of nanomaterials in the cancer therapy. Nanomaterials in the cancer therapy have emphasis role in drug delivery process with various drug materials. Cancer cells imaging with the nanomaterials is another emerging field in cancer therapy. Various types of diagnostic techniques are also discussed in this chapter.

Scaffolds and other functional structures along with unique surface chemistry, morphology and interconnectedness to facilitate cell multiplication and adherence is a vital component of Tissue engineering (TE). Not only for cell movement but also for waste molecule excretion and adequate nutrient needs, these are considered to be a necessity. While developing a unique cellular structure like a scaffold, cell types must be taken into consideration; for example, whether cells are allogeneic, xenogeneic, or autologous. In TE, the goal is to create an ordered 3D framework with features and functionality which replicate the extracellular matrix. In such context, scaffolds are being formed with the developing nanotechnology, which fulfils majority of above requirements. This chapter discusses the usage of nanostructures focused on biopolymers, comprising stem cells and biomaterials, bio-nanocomposites and particular clinical scenarios under which these structures were being utilized. We have highlighted the potential difficulties and insights throughout the development of nanocomposites that are non-hazardous and biocompatible with high reliability acting as a catalyst in regeneration of tissues and biomedical applications.

Since its advent, nanotechnology has seen applications in diverse fields including the biomedical domain. Many metal oxide nanoparticles (NP) have shown good antimicrobial properties. Their small size and ability to inhibit a broad spectrum of bacterial species have made them promising candidates in our search of antimicrobial agents. Since, they don’t target a specific protein in a microbial species, the chances of the microbe gaining resistance is also less. This is indeed a great advantage over antibiotics, most of which target specific proteins of bacteria. Most of the pathogenic bacteria have gained resistance against commonly used antibiotics. In this context there is a dire need of antimicrobials with a broader spectrum of action. Metal oxide nanoparticles like: ZnO NPs and CuO NPs easily fit into this category. They can suppress microbial growth by reactive oxygen species production, thereby causing damage to biomolecules, cation release, interactions with membrane and ATP depletion. One of the challenges with metal oxide NP is their cytotoxicity. Scientists are in search of degradable and less toxic metal oxide NP. The current review focuses on the relative advantages and limitations of various metal oxides NPs in inhibiting microbial growth.

In recent years, graphene has become a fascinating material for many scientists because of its unique qualities. As the graphene structure is two-dimensional, and its carbon is sp² hybridized arranged in a hexagonal lattice. Due to this, graphene derivatives (GO: graphene oxide and rGO: reduced graphene oxide) have been increased so much, which provides better capabilities for synthesizing graphene-based useful materials for numerous applications such as mechanical, electrical, thermal, and sensors. In this chapter, we discuss the graphene properties and their application as sensors. Also, the investigations of the stretchable matrix of graphene consist for various applications such as inflexible composite electrodes of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and conductive hydrogel’s have utility in stretchable electroluminescent (EL). This chapter also describes that graphene is used in several sensing technologies due to its unique properties. In previous years, different platforms of sensing were given with pristine and derived graphene with nanoparticles and polymers. A few of these stages were utilized to immobilize biomolecules, for example, antibodies, DNA, and proteins to make profoundly delicate and specific biosensors. Systems to connect these biomolecules onto the outside of graphene have been utilized dependent on its compound structure. Here, we summarized the research conducted that uses graphene and its derivatives to produce valuable biosensors by combining with DNA molecules and antibodies, which is ready to recognize and distinguish an assortment of sicknesses, microorganisms, and biomolecules connected to diseases.

Functional bio-engineered nanomaterials are at the foremost verge of the speedily emerging area of science and Nano-biotechnology. Their unique structure and size driven characteristics challenge researchers to make use of these nanomaterials and nanodevices for various indispensable and unique areas of applications such as health, medicine, food and agriculture, etc. The field of nano-biotechnology provides a room to incorporate unique properties of material (Unlike conventional technologies) into nanosized particles and nanodevice structures or systems only by altering their shape, size, and their composition. These functional bio-engineered nanomaterials have tunable properties which provide freedom to, scientists, biologists, physiotherapists and clinicians to custom-design a material and devices for a specific health medicine and agriculture-based applications. The current chapter presented the conclusions of novel perspectives of functional bio-engineered materials and an ephemeral summary of the most important applications of them in the field of nano-biotechnology (particularly in health and medicine) and a brief discussion of their commercialization scenarios. Finally, outlook and future prospects of this integrative field is provided.