Bioclimatic Architecture in Warm Climates

Africa’s position in the globe (37°21′N–34°51′S; 17°33′W–51°27′E) is one-off as it promotes evidences of almost all possible intertropical zone climate types and subtypes, namely, the equatorial, the humid and dry tropical, the Mediterranean and the desert. The approximately 8000 km in length and 7400 km in width and a 32,000 km coastline provide unique geographical features that are shown in the numerous existing climatic contexts.

The problems of environmental sustainability and energy saving are universal and common to all countries and regions worldwide. The interdependence with climatic and environmental factors is a reality that makes all countries and all citizens equally responsible for the present ecological problems, which will inevitably worsen if we are not all aware and supportive to their mitigation, if not prevention.

People working in the field of vernacular architecture located in arid zones acknowledge that these settlements have developed urban and architectural morphologies well adapted to the extreme physical environment. They identify adaptive features in urban and architectural patterns, cohesive social structure, and finally, adaptive behaviors derived from an indigenous “know-how.”

On the other hand, field research in climate change affirms that the human groups most exposed to climate change are those located in developing countries; the Saharan vernacular settlements testify to this assertion. Nevertheless, as regards adaptability to climate change, the indigenous people of the Sahara retain specific knowledge concerning resilient eco-systems. Furthermore, it is recognized that this indigenous knowledge plays a significant role in maintaining local socio-ecologic systems which contribute to socially responsible resilience toward sustainability.

This study highlights the role of social cohesion in implementing pro-environmental behavior and adaptive actions to reduce the negative effects of climate change on indigenous communities of the northern Sahara. We base this argument on the results of in-situ investigations with the objective of comprehending and evaluating the indigenous knowledge and adaptive capacities of desert oasis dwellers to both ordinary and extreme weather situations stemming from climate change. The case studies are Algerian Saharan vernacular settlements of the M’Zab Valley and of the Gourara region.

It is the aim of this section to contribute with information on the potential of vegetation to provide outdoor microclimates thermally more comfortable than in unvegetated places. It introduces the subject of vegetation and its relation to mankind. In a first stage, it shows the integration of man and nature in different moments in time. By looking at past examples, it is the intent to show how man once needed, eventually worked with, and then appreciated being linked to environment. These lessons which have been forgotten are still valuable today. Our fantasies, our hopes, our inspiration and appreciation of art, and our image of paradise are all linked to nature. Landscape and climate are two broad terms with indefinite connotations used by artists, poets, ecologists, and architects, among others. All have acclaimed nature in their own interpretations. Nevertheless, architecture is the form of art with most impact on people and their perceptions. “Architecture reflects, materializes and eternalizes ideas and images of ideal life. Buildings and towns enable us to structure, understand and remember the shapeless flow of reality and, ultimately, to recognise and remember who we are” (Pallasmaa 1996). Our living environment “strengthens the existential experience, one’s sense of being in the world, essentially giving rise to a strengthened experience of self” (Pallasmaa 1996). The closer we bring nature to our dwellings, the better use we can make of it, gaining in physiological and psychological aspects.

Shaded areas around structures is an effective strategy in reducing direct sunlight inside buildings located in countries with hot climates. In regions of hot humid climate, shade has the effect of reducing the air temperature of the surrounding area and enhancing natural cooling. This is increasingly relevant in times of climate change because buildings are requested to lower CO₂ emissions. This chapter aims to give an overview of twentieth century architecture in Mozambique and provide information to architects of the twenty first century that intend to continue this tradition and expand bioclimatic solutions that succeed in lowering the consumption of energy. The focus on Pancho is due to the excellence of his work in the panorama of modern architecture, the diversity of his design merging local traditions and new technologies, and the cultural impact of his work in Maputo, Mozambique.

Nowadays, there are several simulation software for building performance analysis. Whether for energetic or structural analysis, these programs work as a powerful development and support tool for the design, concept, and execution of a project.

Over the last century, there has been an impressive growth of the world urban population. If there were 7 billion people in 2011, it is currently estimated to have reached 8.5 billion. This growth has not been gradual; from 1950 to the present, the number of people has almost tripled to the point where the number of inhabitants in urban areas exceeds the number of inhabitants in rural areas. This growth was not uniform either, and in urban areas of developing countries, population growth occurred in parallel with accelerated urbanization, contributing to a high and particularly rapid growth rate, with an estimated average of 2% a year, compared to the average rate of 0.5% in urban areas of more developed countries (United Nations 2015). This acceleration, coupled with the low economic conditions, has hampered the process of sustainable consolidation of urban structures where the difficulties in guaranteeing the minimum and decent conditions in the urban and housing context are accentuated.

 This chapter addresses the main challenges for sub-Saharan Africa in pursuing the Sustainable Development Goals, and discusses the current situation regarding energy, water, food and climate change. It argues that the combined perspective of human capabilities and environmental justice can offer a fruitful contribution for analysing social vulnerabilities across these four critical areas.

This chapter presents the main challenges to be overcoming in order to have sustainable and smart cities in Africa in the future. The analysis highlines confirm the existence of huge challenges, problems, and restrictions about social, economic, and environmental and political issues in Africa. This chapter analyzes the main constraints of urban development on the African continent and confirms that smart cities will be possible in Africa when the current problems of sustainable development (economic, social, environmental, and political) are overcome. However, the chapter allows us to understand why this is the first chapter in the literature to address the topic of smart cities in Africa. It should be noted that in this continent there are at least two of the world’s largest cities in terms of inhabitants, and the population growth rate of the African continent is about 2.5%. So, this is a world problem to minimize. The concern about the problems of sustainable development in this region and how to promote it toward sustainable cities competes to all and the follow way will affect all of the world sustainable development.

The building permit is usually the final decision of urban governance for public authorities, whereby the private actor is given the right to construct at the urban plot. But in urban areas there is an urban context, which calls the attention to the need of a planning perspective of the assembled built environment. Detailed plans are required, and they ought to be considered in a total urban or municipal context, such as a comprehensive plan. A case study at the Cape Verde islands made it clear that such a full planning context is not working. The Swedish system of physical planning is used to show how the planning tools can be efficiently used in order to achieve specific objectives, including the local level of building permits. Bioclimatic aspects on urban design and construction can be achieved. However, the reality in many developing countries, such as Cape Verde, turns it practically impossible to establish such a full urban planning context. The author recommends the public urban administration to focus on the detailed plan for its urban governance, and hand over the building control issues to private actors.

The African continent is witnessing unprecedented and sustained growth, and its economies are currently witnessing average rates of around 4% per year. Six of the global ten fastest growing economies over the past decade are located in sub-Saharan Africa. If this growth rate is steadily maintained, sub-Saharan African GDP could increase three times by 2030 and seven times by 2050. However, to sustain such economic and social growth, a much larger and better performing energy sector is required. African population will be doubled in 2050, reaching two billion people. About 40% of this population will be living in the rural areas. Sub-Sahraran Africa is the world's region with the highest energy poverty rates.The region, with a population of more than 950 million, is the most electricity-poor in the world, since aroun two thirds of its population has no access to electricity services, or are connected to unreliable energy networks. On the other side, Sub-Saharan Africa have enormous renewable energy potential with some of the largest concentration of alternative energya resources of the world, in the form of solar, wind, hydro and biomass energy. But only a small portion of these huge resources are currently used to satisfy electricity needs in the continent. The exploitation of renewable energies can lead to sociocultural, economic and environmental benefits, reducing the energy divide to achieve sustaibale development of Sub-Saharan Africa's societies.

Until the introduction of steel and concrete in construction, most of vertical structural and partition elements in traditional buildings consisted in masonry walls. This type of constructive element is usually made of low-energy local materials, such as rubble stone or clay bricks, lime mortar, etc. This type of wall is particularly well adapted to warm climates, namely due to its high thermal inertia. Because of its overall sustainability, masonry buildings should preferably be preserved and repaired instead of being substituted by other less adapted typologies. This chapter aims at showing the most common pathologies that may arise in this type of walls and some possible techniques to solve them.

Of all materials used in building construction, timber is the only fully renewable raw material, continuously produced by nature.

Bamboo is the only Graminea adapted to the life as forest. Bamboos can be found around the globe and are naturally occurring in Africa, America and Asia in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate areas around the equator. Bamboos are giant grasses that propagate rapidly by the expansion of underground rhizomes. In general, bamboos are known for their rapid growth with a rate of up to 25 cm/day in certain species of woody bamboos such as Guadua angustifolia Kunth (bamboo). Although there are some species of solid bamboos, morphologically bamboo can be generally described as a hollow tapered tube (culm), with internodes separated by nodes, which is supported by an intricate rhizome system (Fig. 15.1). The culm is the main organ of the aerial part of bamboos, which is also comprised of branches, sheaths and foliage leaves, with flowering occurs sporadically. The rhizome and culm neck form the subterranean part. Culms store about 80% of the carbohydrates required by young plants for their growth, whilst rhizomes store the remaining 20%.

Around the world, nearly 800 million people don’t have access to safe drinking water, and more than one-third of these people live in sub-Saharan Africa countries. According to WHO/UNESCO (2010), although access to water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa has been steadily improving over the past two decades, the region still faces considerable problems: access to improved water supply has increased from 49% in 1990 to 60% in 2008, while access to improved sanitation has only risen from 28% to 31%.

LiderA is a Sustainable Evaluation System that can be used to select and develop sustainable solutions in plans or projects applied to urban environments or buildings, allowing also certified the level of sustainability. Major challenges identified using the assessment of LiderA system orientation for Africa to achieve an environment sustainability in built environment are: to assure that sustainability approaches be applied not only in a building level but as urban zone, in order to assure that promotes bioclimatic solutions and common energy system namely renewable; Also assure a good water cycle, from supply to local treatment and reuse linking building and urban zones; To promote the use of local materials (without achieve a critical level of the stocks) and solutions that interpret local techniques that could be low tech or not, but have a good balance in life cycle costs; Make a contributions to socio economic dynamics; Different locals and regions must adjust solutions to climatic and local conditions.