Top

Published in:

2011 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

6. Cercopithecids (Cercopithecidae, Primates)

Author : Terry Harrison

Published in: Paleontology and Geology of Laetoli: Human Evolution in Context

Publisher: Springer Netherlands

Activate our intelligent search to find suitable subject content or patents.

search-config

AI-assisted search

Off

Abstract

New finds from Laetoli have allowed a more detailed assessment of the taxonomy and paleobiology of the fossil cercopithecids. Most of the specimens consist of isolated teeth, jaw fragments and postcranial bones from the Upper Laetolil Beds (∼3.5–3.8 Ma), but four specimens are known from the Upper Ndolanya Beds (∼2.66 Ma) and a proximal humerus has been recovered from the Lower Laetolil Beds (∼3.8–4.3 Ma). Four species are represented: Parapapio ado, Papionini gen. et sp. indet., cf. Rhinocolobus sp., and Cercopithecoides sp. Parapapio ado is the most common species. Based on dental size and proportions and facial morphology, Pp. ado can be distinguished from all other species of Parapapio. The postcranial specimens attributed to Pp. ado indicate that it was a slender and agile semi-terrestrial monkey. A few isolated teeth represent a second species of papionin, larger in dental size than Pp. ado. Due to the paucity of the material, the taxon is left unassigned at the genus and species level. A distal humerus attributed to this taxon indicates that it was large terrestrial cercopithecid. The most common species of colobine is referred to cf. Rhinocolobus sp., based on its overall similarities to Rhinocolobus turkanaensis. The material can be distinguished from all fossil colobine species previously recognized from Africa, but without more complete cranial specimens it is not possible to diagnose a new taxon. From the postcranial material it can be inferred that it was generally adapted for arboreal quadrupedalism. The somewhat smaller species of colobine represents a previously undescribed species of Cercopithecoides. The postcranial specimens attributed to this taxon indicate that it was fully arboreal. Analysis of the distribution of the Laetoli cercopithecids provides provisional evidence of spatial patterning and temporal trends. For example, the dentition of Parapapio exhibits a trend to increase in size during the course of the Upper Laetolil Beds. As at other late Miocene and early Pliocene localities older than 3.5 Ma, the Laetoli cercopithecid community is characterized by the absence of Theropithecus and the relatively large proportion of colobines. After 3.5 Ma Theropithecus becomes the dominant cercopithecid at all East African localities, and the proportion of colobines declines accordingly.

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

previous chapter Galagidae (Lorisoidea, Primates)

next chapter Hominins from the Upper Laetolil and Upper Ndolanya Beds, Laetoli

Ndessokia (1990: 175, 177) added Theropithecus darti to the faunal list of the Upper Laetolil Beds, based on material from his 1987–1988 collections. The location of these collections is unknown, so the identification cannot be verified. Given the absence of Theropithecus from the extensive Leakey and Harrison collections, it seems unlikely that this taxon was present in the Upper Laetolil Beds. It is possible that the material on which the identification is based is intrusive from the Ngaloba Beds, in which Theropithecus is known to occur (Harrison, personal observation).

Aimi, M., & Nogami, Y. (1989). Macaca fuscata develops thin enamel on lingual sides of lower incisors. Primates, 30, 261–264.CrossRef

Benefit, B. R., McCrossin, M., Boaz, N. T., & Pavlakis, P. (2008). New fossil cercopithecoids from the late Miocene of as Sahabi, Libya. Garyounis Scientific Bulletin, Special Issue 5, 265–282.

Berger, M. E. (1972). Live-weights and body measurements of olive baboons (Papio anubis) in the Laikipia District of Kenya. Journal of Mammalogy, 53, 404–407.CrossRef

Birchette, M. G. (1982). The postcranial skeleton of Paracolobus chemeroni. Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge.

Bird, M. E. (1987). A preliminary comparative study of fossil and extant mammalian tracks and trails. In M. D. Leakey & J. M. Harris (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene site in northern Tanzania (pp. 546–550). Oxford: Clarendon.

Bromage, T. G., & Schrenk, F. (1986). A cercopithecoid tooth from the Pliocene of Malawi. Journal of Human Evolution, 15, 497–500.CrossRef

Bromage, T. G., Schrenk, F., & Juwayeyi, Y. M. (1995). Paleobiogeography of the Malawi rift: Age and vertebrate paleontology of the Chiwondo beds, northern Malawi. Journal of Human Evolution, 28, 37–57.CrossRef

Broom, R. (1940). The South African Pleistocene cercopithecid apes. Annals of the Transvaal Museum, 20, 89–100.

Ciochon, R. L. (1993). Evolution of the cercopithecoid forelimb: Phylogenetic and functional implications from morphometric analyses. University of California Publications in Geological Sciences (Vol. 138). Berkeley: University of California Press.

Conroy, G. C., & Rose, M. D. (1983). The evolution of the primate foot from the earliest primates to the Miocene hominoids. Foot & Ankle, 3, 342–364.CrossRef

Delson, E. (1975). Evolutionary history of the Cercopithecidae. In F. S. Szalay (Ed.), Approaches to primate paleobiology. Contributions to primatology (Vol. 5, pp. 167–217). Basel: Karger.

Delson, E. (1978). New fossil cercopithecids from East Africa. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 49, 389.

Delson, E. (1984). Cercopithecid biochronology of the African Plio-Pleistocene: Correlation among eastern and southern hominid-bearing localities. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, 69, 199–218.

Delson, E., Terranova, C. J., Jungers, W. L., Sargis, E. J., Jablonski, N. G., & Dechow, P. C. (2000). Body mass in Cercopithecidae (Primates, Mammalia): Estimation and scaling in extinct and extant taxa. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 83, 1–159.

Dietrich, W. O. (1942). Altestquartäre Säugetiere aus der Südlichen Serengeti, Deutsch-Ostafrika. Palaeontographica, 94(A), 43–133.

Eck, G. G. (1976). Cercopithecoidea from Omo Group deposits. In Y. Coppens, F. C. Howell, G. L. Isaac, & R. E. F. Leakey (Eds.), Earliest man and environments in the Lake Rudolf Basin (pp. 332–344). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Eck, G. (1977). Diversity and frequency distribution of Omo Group Cercopithecoidea. Journal of Human Evolution, 6, 55–63.CrossRef

Eisenhart, W. L. (1974). The fossil cercopithecoids of Makapansgat and Sterkfontein. B. A. thesis, Harvard College, Cambridge.

Elton, S. (2001). Locomotor and habitat classifications of cercopithecoid postcranial material from Sterkfontein Member 4, Bolt’s farm and Swartkrans Member 1 and 2, South Africa. Palaeontologia Africana, 37, 115–126.

El-Zaatari, S., Frine, F. E., Teaford, M. F., & Smith, H. F. (2005). Molar microwear and dietary reconstructions of fossil Cercopithecoidea from the Plio-Pleistocene deposits of South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 49, 180–205.CrossRef

Feibel, C. S. (2003). Stratigraphy and depositional setting of the Pliocene Kanapoi Formation, Lower Kerio Valley, Kenya. In J. M. Harris & M. G. Leakey (Eds.), Geology and vertebrate paleontology of the early Pliocene site of Kanapoi, northern Kenya (pp. 9–20). Los Angeles: Contributions in Science 498, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.

Fleagle, J. G. (1977). Locomotor behavior and skeletal anatomy of sympatric Malaysian leaf-monkeys (Presbytis obscura and Presbytis melalophos). Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 20, 440–453.

Fleagle, J. G., & Meldrum, D. J. (1988). Locomotor behavior and skeletal morphology of two sympatric pitheciiine monkeys, Pithecia pithecia and Chiropotes satanus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 16, 227–249.

Freedman, L. (1957). The fossil Cercopithecoidea of South Africa. Annals of the Transvaal Museum, 23, 121–262.

Freedman, L. (1976). South African fossil Cercopithecoidea: A reassessment including a description of new material from Makapansgat, Sterkfontein and Taung. Journal of Human Evolution, 5, 297–315.

Freedman, L., & Stenhouse, N. S. (1972). The Parapapio species of Sterkfontein, Transvaal, South Africa. Palaeontologia Africana, 14, 93–111.

Frost, S. R. (2001). New early Pliocene Cercopithecidae (Mammalia: Primates) from Aramis, Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia. American Museum Novitates, 3350, 1–36.CrossRef

Frost, S. R. (2007). African Pliocene and Pleistocene cercopithecid evolution and global climatic change. In R. Bobe, Z. Alemseged, & A. K. Behrensmeyer (Eds.), Hominin environments in the East African Pliocene: An assessment of the faunal evidence (pp. 51–76). Dordrecht: Springer.CrossRef

Frost, S. R., & Delson, E. (2002). Fossil Cercopithecidae from the Hadar formation and surrounding areas of the Afar Depression, Ethiopia. Journal of Human Evolution, 43, 687–748.CrossRef

Frost, S. R., & Kullmer, O. (2008). Cercopithecidae from the Pliocene Chiwondo Beds, Malawi-rift. Geobios, 41, 743–749.CrossRef

Frost, S. R., Plummer, T., Bishop, L. C., Ditchfield, P., Ferraro, J., & Hicks, J. (2003). Partial cranium of Cercopithecoides kimeui Leakey, 1982 from Rawi Gully, Southwestern Kenya. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 122, 191–199.CrossRef

Frost, S. R., Haile-Selassie, Y., & Hlusko, L. (2009). Cercopithecidae. In Y. Haile-Selassie & G. WoldeGabriel (Eds.), Ardipithecus kadabba: Late Miocene evidence from the Middle Awash Ethiopia (pp. 135–158). Berkeley: University of California Press.

Gilbert, C. C. (2007). Craniomandibular morphology supporting the diphyletic origin of mangabeys and a new genus of the Cercocebus/Mandrillus clade, Procercocebus. Journal of Human Evolution, 53, 69–102.CrossRef

Gilbert, C. C. (2008). African papioinin phylogenetic history and Plio-Pleistocene biogeography. Ph.D. dissertation, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook.

Gilbert, W. H., & Frost, S. (2008). Cercopithecidae. In W. H. Gilbert & B. Asfaw (Eds.), Homo erectus: Pleistocene evidence from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia (pp. 115–132). Berkeley: University of California Press.

Grine, F. E., & Hendey, Q. B. (1981). Earliest primate remains from South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 77, 374–376.

Haile-Selassie, Y., WoldeGabriel, G., White, T. D., Bernor, R. L., Degusta, D., Renne, P. R., Hart, W. K., Vrba, E., Ambrose, S., & Howell, F. C. (2004). Mio-Pliocene mammals from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Geobios, 37, 536–552.CrossRef

Haile-Selassie, Y., Saylor, B. Z., Deino, A., Alene, M., & Latimer, B. M. (2010). New hominid fossils from Woranso-Mille (Central Afar, Ethiopia) and taxonomy of early Australopithecus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 141, 406–417.

Harris, J. M., Brown, F. H., & Leakey, M. G. (1988). Stratigraphy and paleontology of Pliocene and Pleistocene localities west of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Contributions in Science, 399, 1–128.

Harris, J. M., Leakey, M. G., & Cerling, T. E. (2003). Early Pliocene tetrapod remains from Kanapoi, Lake Turkana Basin, Kenya. In J. M. Harris & M. G. Leakey (Eds.), Geology and vertebrate paleontology of the early Pliocene site of Kanapoi, northern Kenya (pp. 39–113). Los Angeles: Contributions in Science 498, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.

Harrison, T. (1982). Small-bodied apes from the Miocene of East Africa. Ph.D. dissertation, University of London, London.

Harrison, T. (1989). New postcranial remains of Victoriapithecus from the middle Miocene of Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 18, 3–54.CrossRef

Harrison, T., & Harris, E. E. (1996). Plio-Pleistocene cercopithecids from Kanam East, Western Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 30, 539–561.CrossRef

Harrison, T., & Kweka, A. (2011). Paleontological localities. In T. Harrison (Ed.), Paleontology and geology of Laetoli: Human evolution in context (Geology, geochronology, paleoecology and paleoenvironment, Vol. 1, pp. 17–45). Dordrecht: Springer.

Haughton, S. H. (1925). A note on the occurrence of a species of baboon in limestone deposits near Taung. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 12, lxviii.

Heaton, J. L. (2006). Taxonomy of the Sterkfontein fossil Cercopithecinae: The Papionini of Members 2 and 4 (Gauteng, South Africa). Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington.

Hlusko, L. J. (2006). A new large Pliocene colobine species (Mammalia: Primates) from Asa Issie, Ethiopia. Geobios, 39, 57–69.CrossRef

Hlusko, L. J. (2007). A new late Miocene species of Paracolobus and other Cercopithecoidea (Mammalia: Primates) fossils from Lemudong’o, Kenya. Kirtlandia, 56, 72–85.

Hopwood, A. T. (1936). New and little-known fossil mammals from the Pleistocene of Kenya colony and Tanganyika Territory. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Ser., 10(17), 636–638.CrossRef

Howell, A. B., & Straus, W. L. (1933). The muscular system. In C. G. Hartman & W. L. Straus (Eds.), The anatomy of the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) (pp. 89–175). New York: Hafner.

Iwamoto, M. (1982). A fossil baboon skull from the Lower Omo Basin, southwestern Ethiopia. Primates, 23, 533–541.CrossRef

Jablonski, N. G. (1994). New fossil cercopithecid remains from the Humpata Plateau, southern Angola. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 94, 435–464.CrossRef

Jablonski, N. G. (2002). Fossil Old World monkeys: The late Neogene radiation. In W. C. Hartwig (Ed.), The primate fossil record (pp. 255–299). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jablonski, N. G., Leakey, M. G., & Antón, M. (2008a). Systematic paleontology of the cercopithecines. In N. G. Jablonski & M. G. Leakey (Eds.), Koobi Fora research project (The fossil monkeys, Vol. 6, pp. 103–300). San Francisco: California Academy of Science.

Jablonski, N. G., Leakey, M. G., Ward, C. V., & Antón, M. (2008b). Systematic paleontology of the large colobines. In N. G. Jablonski & M. G. Leakey (Eds.), Koobi Fora research project (The fossil monkeys, Vol. 6, pp. 31–102). San Francisco: California Academy of Science.

Jolly, C. J. (1967). The fossil history of the baboons. In H. Vagtborg (Ed.), The baboons in medical research (pp. 23–50). Austin: University of Texas Press.

Jolly, C. J. (1972). The classification and natural history of Theropithecus (Simopithecus) (Andrews, 1916), baboons of the African Plio-Pleistocene. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Geology, 22(1), 1–123.

Jones, T. R. (1937). A new fossil primate from Sterkfontein, Krugersdorp, Transvaal. South African Journal of Science, 33, 709–728.

Kingston, J. D., & Harrison, T. (2007). Isotopic dietary reconstructions of Pliocene herbivores at Laetoli: Implications for hominin paleoecology. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 243, 272–306.CrossRef

Koppe, T., & Swindler, D. R. (2004). Metrical sexual dimorphism in the deciduous teeth of Old World monkeys. Annals of Anatomy, 186, 367–374.CrossRef

Kovarovic, K., & Andrews, P. (2007). Bovid postcranial ecomorphological survey of the Laetoli paleoenvironment. Journal of Human Evolution, 52, 663–680.CrossRef

Larson, S. G. (1993). Functional morphology of the shoulder in primates. In D. L. Gebo (Ed.), Postcranial adaptation in nonhuman primates (pp. 45–69). De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press.

Leakey, M. G. (1982). Extinct large colobines from the Plio-Pleistocene of Africa. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 58, 153–172.CrossRef

Leakey, M. D. (1987a). Introduction. In M. D. Leakey & J. M. Harris (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene site in northern Tanzania (pp. 1–22). Oxford: Clarendon.

Leakey, M. D. (1987b). Animal prints and trails. In M. D. Leakey & J. M. Harris (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene site in northern Tanzania (pp. 451–489). Oxford: Clarendon.

Leakey, M. G. (1987c). Colobinae (Mammalia, Primates) from the Omo Valley, Ethiopia. In Y. Coppens & F. C. Howell (Eds.), Les Faunes Plio-Pléistocenès de la Basse Vallée de l’Omo (Éthiopie). Tome 3, Cercopithecidae de la Formation de Shungura. Cahiers de Paléontologie (pp. 149–169). Paris: CNRS.

Leakey, M. G., & Delson, E. (1987). Fossil Cercopithecidae from the Laetolil Beds. In M. D. Leakey & J. M. Harris (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene site in northern Tanzania (pp. 91–107). Oxford: Clarendon.

Leakey, M. G., & Leakey, R. E. F. (1976). Further Cercopithecinae (Mammalia, Primates) from the Plio/Pleistocene of East Africa. Fossil Vertebrates of Africa, 4, 121–146.

Leakey, M. G., Feibel, C. S., McDougall, I., & Walker, A. (1995). New four-million-year-old hominid species from Kanapoi and Allia Bay, Kenya. Nature, 376, 565–571.CrossRef

Leakey, M. G., Teaford, M. F., & Ward, C. V. (2003). Cercopithecidae from Lothagam. In M. G. Leakey & J. M. Harris (Eds.), Lothagam: The dawn of humanity in eastern Africa (pp. 204–248). New York: Columbia University Press.

Leakey, M. G., Gathogo, P., & Jablonski, N. G. (2008). Geological background and cercopithecoid faunal assemblages. In N. G. Jablonski & M. G. Leakey (Eds.), Koobi Fora research project (The fossil monkeys, Vol. 6, pp. 359–396). San Francisco: California Academy of Science.

Le Minor, J. M. (1987). Comparative anatomy and significance of the sesamoid bone of the peroneus longus muscle (os peroneum). Journal of Anatomy, 151, 85–99.

McDougall, I., & Brown, F. H. (2008). Geochronology of the pre-KBS Tuff sequence, Omo Group, Turkana Basin. Journal of the Geological Society of London, 165, 549–562.CrossRef

McDougall, I., & Feibel, C. S. (2003). Numerical age control for the Miocene-Pliocene succession at Lothagam, a hominoid-bearing sequence in the northern Kenya Rift. In M. G. Leakey & J. M. Harris (Eds.), Lothagam: The dawn of humanity in eastern Africa (pp. 43–60). New York: Columbia University Press.

Mollett, O. (1947). Fossil mammals from the Makapansgat Valley. Potgeitersrust. I. Primates. South African Journal of Science, 43, 95–303.

Ndessokia, P. N. S. (1990). The mammalian fauna and archaeology of the Ndolanya and Olpiro Beds, Laetoli, Tanzania. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.

Patterson, B. (1968). The extinct baboon, Parapapio jonesi, in the early Pleistocene of northwestern Kenya. Breviora, 282, 1–4.

Pickford, M., Mein, P., & Senut, B. (1992). Primate bearing Plio-Pleistocene cave deposits of Humpata, southern Angola. Human Evolution, 7, 17–33.CrossRef

Rae, T. C. (2008). Paranasal pneumatization in extant and fossil Cercopithecoidea. Journal of Human Evolution, 54, 279–286.CrossRef

Reck, H., & Kohl-Larsen, L. (1936). Erster Überblick über die jungdiluvialen Tier- und Menschenfunde Dr. Kohl-Larsen’s im nordöstlichen Teil des Njarasa-Grabens (Ostafrika) und die geologischen Verhältnisse des Fundgebietes. Geologische Rundschau, 27, 401–441.CrossRef

Reed, K. E. (2008). Paleoecological patterns at the Hadar hominin site, Afar Regional State, Ethiopia. Journal of Human Evolution, 54, 743–768.CrossRef

Rose, M. D. (1989). New postcranial specimens of catarrhines from the Middle Miocene Chinji Formation, Pakistan: Descriptions and a discussion of proximal humerus functional morphology in anthropoids. Journal of Human Evolution, 18, 131–162.CrossRef

Rose, M. D. (1993). Functional anatomy of the elbow and forearm in primates. In D. L. Gebo (Ed.), Postcranial adaptation in nonhuman primates (pp. 70–95). De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press.

Semaw, S., Simpson, S. W., Quade, J., Renne, P. R., Butler, R. F., McIntosh, W. C., Levin, N., Dominguez-Rodrigo, M., & Rogers, M. J. (2005). Early Pliocene hominids from Gona, Ethiopia. Nature, 433, 301–305.CrossRef

Senut, B. (1994). Cercopithecoidea Néogènes et Quaternaires du Rift Occidental (Ouganda). In B. Senut & M. Pickford (Eds.), Geology and palaeobiology of the Albertine Rift Valley, Uganda-Zaire (Palaeobiology, Vol. II, pp. 195–205). Orléans: CIFEG.

Senut, B. (1996). Cercopithecoidea du Plio-Pléistocène des Koanaka Hills (Ngamiland, Botswana). Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences Paris, 322, Séries IIa, 423–428.

Smith, J. M., & Savage, R. J. G. (1956). Some locomotory adaptations in mammals. Journal of the Linnean Society (Zoology), 42, 603–622.

Strasser, E. (1988). Pedal evidence for the origin and diversifica-tion of cercopithecid clades. Journal of Human Evolution, 17, 225–245.CrossRef

Strasser, E., & Delson, E. (1987). Cladistic analysis of cercopithecid relationships. Journal of Human Evolution, 16, 81–99.CrossRef

Su, D. F., & Harrison, T. (2008). Ecological implications of the relative rarity of fossil hominins at Laetoli. Journal of Human Evolution, 55, 672–681.CrossRef

Swindler, D. R. (2002). Primate dentition: An introduction to the teeth of non-human primates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRef

Szalay, F. S., & Delson, E. (1979). Evolutionary history of the primates. New York: Academic.

Tattersfield, P. (2011). Gastropoda. In T. Harrison (Ed.), Paleontology and geology of Laetoli: Human evolution in context (Fossil hominins and the associated fauna, Vol. 2, pp. 567–587). Dordrecht: Springer.

Walker, A. (1974). Locomotor adaptations in past and present prosimian primates. In F. A. Jenkins (Ed.), Primate locomotion (pp. 349–381). New York: Academic.

White, T. D., WoldeGabriel, G., Asfaw, B., Ambrose, S., Beyene, Y., Bernor, R. L., Boisserrie, J.-R., Currie, B., Gilbert, H., Haile-Selassie, Y., Hart, W. K., Hlusko, L. J., Howell, F. C., Kono, R., Lehmann, T., Louchart, A., Lovejoy, C. O., Renne, P. R., Saegusa, H., Vrba, E. S., & Suwa, G. (2006). Asa Issie, Aramis and the origin of Australopithecus. Nature, 440, 883–889.CrossRef

Williams, F. L., Ackermann, R. R., & Leigh, S. R. (2007). Inferring Plio-Pleistocene southern African biochronology from facial affinities in Parapapio and other fossil papionins. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 132, 163–174.CrossRef

Title: Cercopithecids (Cercopithecidae, Primates)
Author: Terry Harrison
Publisher: Springer Netherlands
Book: Paleontology and Geology of Laetoli: Human Evolution in Context
Print ISBN: 978-90-481-9961-7

Electronic ISBN: 978-90-481-9962-4

Copyright Year: 2011
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9962-4_6