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2017 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

9. Conclusions

Authors : Alexandros K. Antoniou, Dimitris Akrivos

Published in: The Rise of Extreme Porn

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter summarises the key outcomes of this study, considers the limitations associated with the adopted methodological approach, and provides an outlook for future research.

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previous chapter Thresholds of Extreme Pornography
Footnotes
1
HL Deb 23 July 1964, vol 260, col 842 (Mr Reginald Manningham-Buller, Lord Chancellor).
 
2
N St John-Stevas, ‘Obscenity and law reform’ (4 February 1955) 194 The Spectator 119, 120.
 
3
Ibid.
 
4
M Lippman, Law and Society (Sage, Thousand Oaks/London: 2015).
 
5
Ibid.
 
6
D Loseke, Thinking about Social Problems: An Introduction to Constructionist Perspectives (2nd ed, Aldine de Gruyter, Hawthorne, NY: 2003).
 
7
Home Office, Consultation: On the Possession of the Extreme Pornographic Material (Home Office Communications Directorate, London: 2005) 1.
 
8
S Cohen, Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of the Mods and Rockers (3rd ed. Routledge, London/New York: 2002 [1972]).
 
9
P Golding and G Murdoch, ‘Culture communications and political economy’ in J Curran and M Gurevitch (eds), Mass Media and Society (3rd ed, Arnold, London: 2000).
 
10
N Christie, ‘The ideal victim’ in E Fattah (ed), From Crime Policy to Victim Policy (Macmillan, Basingstoke: 1986).
 
11
M Innes, ‘Signal crimes and signal disorders: Notes on deviance as communicative action’ (2004) 55(3) The British Journal of Sociology 335.
 
12
DS Wall, ‘Criminalising Cyberspace: The Rise of the Internet as a “Crime Problem”’ in Jewkes and Yar, Handbook of Internet Crime (Willan, Devon: 2010).
 
13
J Katz, ‘What makes crime news?’ (1987) 9(1) Media, Culture and Society 47.
 
14
S Hall, C Critcher, T Jefferson, J Clarke and B Roberts, Policing the Crisis (Macmillan, London: 1978).
 
15
Loseke (n 6).
 
16
P Jenkins, Beyond Tolerance: Child Pornography on the Internet (New York University Press, New York: 2001).
 
17
C Greer and E McLaughlin, ‘Trial by media: Policing, the 24–7 news mediasphere, and the politics of outrage’ (2011) 15(1) Theoretical Criminology 23.
 
18
S Ungar, ‘The rise and (relative) decline of global warming as a social problem’ (1992) 33(4) The Sociological Quarterly 483; Jenkins (n 16).
 
19
C Itzin, A Taket and L Kelly, ‘The evidence of harm to adults relating to exposure to extreme pornographic material: A Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA)’ MOJ Research Series 11/ 07 (MOJ: London, 2007).
 
20
M Partington, ‘Empirical legal research and policy-making’ in P Cane and H Kritzer (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Empirical Legal Research (OUP, Oxford: 2010) 1021.
 
21
M Taylor and E Quayle, Child Pornography: An Internet Crime (Brunner-Routledge, Hove: 2003) 75.
 
22
M Wykes, ‘Harm, suicide and homicide in cyberspace: Assessing causality and control’ in Y Jewkes and M Yar, Handbook of Internet Crime (Willan Publishing, Devon: 2010) 379.
 
23
Lord Hunt was the then Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Justice and sponsor of the CJIB.
 
24
HL Deb 21 April 2008, vol 700, cols 1357–1358.
 
25
AD Murray, ‘The reclassification of extreme pornographic images’ (2009) 72(1) Modern Law Review 73, 90.
 
26
S Easton, ‘Criminalising the possession of extreme pornography: Sword or shield’ (2011) 75(5) Journal of Criminal Law 391, 398, 402.
 
27
H Fenwick and G Phillipson, Media Freedom Under the Human Rights Act (OUP, Oxford: 2006) 479.
 
28
Ibid.
 
29
Ibid 480.
 
30
R Dworkin, ‘Is there a right to pornography?’ (1981) 1 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 177, 194.
 
31
S Ramage, ‘An examination of the laws concerning bestiality’ (2009) 16(December) Criminal Law News 1, 2.
 
32
Home Office, Setting the Boundaries: Reforming the law on sex offences, Volume 1 (Home Office Communications Directorate, London: 2000) 126.
 
33
cf Germany’s recent move to reverse a 1969 decision to legalise zoophilia and introduce a ban on bestiality through a revision of animal welfare law; see K Connolly, ‘Germany to ban bestiality under animal welfare law’ The Guardian (London 28 November 2012) 21.
 
34
C McGlynn and E Rackley, ‘Criminalising extreme pornography: A lost opportunity’ (2009) 4 Crim LR 245, 251.
 
38
CJIA 2008, s 63(6)(b).
 
39
Home Office, Consultation: On the Possession of the Extreme Pornographic Material (Home Office Communications Directorate, London: 2005) [34].
 
40
Murray (n 25) 90.
 
41
Namely all images discussed in KE01B, KE03BD, LO06BD, LO08BD, SW13BD, SW14B, SW15BD; that is seven out of nine case files involving images falling within s 63(7)(b) of the CJIA 2008. The eighth case file (ST10AB) referred to a niche pornography market. In the ninth (LO07B), the judge directed an acquittal; see Chapter 8.
 
42
CCP (2010) [4.5]; (2013) [4.4] (emphasis added).
 
43
cf CCP (2010) [4.12]; (2013) [4.12a]: ‘The more serious the offence, the more likely it is that a prosecution is required.’
 
44
See Ministry of Justice Circular 2009/01, Possession of extreme pornographic images and increase in the maximum sentence for offences under the OPA 1959: Implementation of ss 63–67 and s 71 of the CJIA 2008 (Criminal Law Policy Unit, London: 2009) [13].
 
45
CJIA 2008, s 63(6)(b).
 
46
A Gillespie, ‘Case comment: Objective standards of indecency’ (2011) 75(4) Journal of Criminal Law 264, 266.
 
47
Ibid.
 
48
R v Stamford (1972) 56 Cr App R 398, 405 (Ashworth J).
 
49
Or a fine, or both; CJIA 2008, s 67(2)(b).
 
50
Or a fine, or both; CJA 1988, s 160(2A), as amended by the Criminal Justice and Court Services Act 2000, s 41(3)(a).
 
51
Contempt of Court Act 1981, s 8.
 
52
CJIA 2008, s 63(2).
 
53
Ibid s 63(6)(a).
 
54
Ibid s 63(6)(b).
 
55
ST10AB (Expert Report on Pornography).
 
56
Ibid (Information Report).
 
57
Ibid (Prosecution arguments).
 
58
Ibid (Expert Report on Pornography).
 
59
P Johnson, ‘Law, morality and disgust: The regulation of “extreme pornography” in England and Wales’ (2010) 19(2) Social and Legal Studies 147, 156; see the discussion in Chapter 5.
 
60
A Young, ‘Aesthetic vertigo and the jurisprudence of disgust’ (2000) 11(3) Law and Critique 241 cited in Johnson (n 59) 159.
 
61
Her Majesty’s Crown Prosecution Service Inspectorate (HMCSPI) has repeatedly drawn attention to this issue in previous reports: HMCPSI and Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary (HMIC), A Report on the Joint Inspection into the Investigation and Prosecution of Cases involving Allegations of Rape (HMCPSI and HMIC, London: 2002) [8.54]; HMCPSI and HMIC, Violence at Home: A Joint Thematic Inspection of the Investigation and Prosecution of Cases Involving Domestic Violence (HMCPSI, London: 2004) [7.18]; HMCPSI, A Follow Up Review of CPS Casework with a Minority Ethnic Dimension: Executive Summary (Thematic Report 4/04) (2004) [38]; this follow-up review notes that the quality of review endorsement had improved, yet the recording by prosecuting advocates of decisions taken at court was ‘less satisfactory.’ The Thematic Inspection on discontinuance also notes that ‘disappointingly there were still samples of poor endorsements on files in which prosecutors gave inadequate or no reasons for the decision’; see HMCPSI, Thematic Review of the Decision-making and Management in Discontinued Cases and Discharged Committals (HMCPSI, London: 2007) [2.7], [4.11]; see also G John, Race for Justice: A review of CPS decision making for possible racial bias at each stage of the prosecution process (Gus John Partnership, 2003) [18]: approximately 6% of the 15,000 case files received for the purposes of this project, were found to be unusable on account of the ‘poor quality of file endorsement’ and was therefore excluded outright from the files that constituted the sample researched. Similar points are made in [31], [33], [99], [124].
 
62
Previously known as ‘No Further Action’; the term was recently introduced by the CPS for the purpose of describing cases which led to ‘No Prosecution’ decisions for evidential, public interest and other reasons.
 
63
A Sanders and R Young, ‘From suspect to trial’ in M Maguire, R Morgan and R Reiner (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Criminology (4th ed, OUP, New York: 2007) 982.
 
Literature
Criminal Justice and Court Services Act 2000
Metadata
Title
Conclusions
Authors
Alexandros K. Antoniou
Dimitris Akrivos
Copyright Year
2017
Book
The Rise of Extreme Porn

Print ISBN: 978-3-319-48970-4

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-48971-1

Copyright Year: 2017

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-48971-1_9

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