Construction Materials

This chapter introduces the reader to the vast world of construction materials. After describing the importance of these materials today, the concept of durability is raised since it is essential to the performance of construction materials. Product standards, used to guarantee the quality of materials, are further taken into account. To finish the chapter, the concept of sustainable construction is considered as well as that of life cycle assessment, the most widely used tool for assessing the environmental impact of products over their life cycles.

This chapter provides an introduction to aggregates, which are the most consumed natural resource after water. The chapter begins with the main definitions of the term, including those from ASTM, EN, and ISO standards. Next heading establishes the main types of aggregates according to the production method: natural, manufactured, or recycled. Natural aggregates can be further subdivided into sand and gravel, and crushed stone. Geological occurrences of natural aggregates (different possibilities since natural aggregates are generated by a great variety of geologic processes) are then discussed as well as the main extraction methods used in sand and gravel and crushed stone exploitation. The principal processing techniques used in aggregate production (crushing, screening, and washing) are described. Then, this chapter describes the properties of aggregates and their associated tests, organized them into five main groups: general, geometrical, mechanical and physical, thermal and weathering, and chemical properties and tests. A heading devoted to aggregate for use as railway ballast is included whereas other important applications of aggregates such as concrete, mortar, and roads are taken into account in the corresponding chapters. The environmental considerations of aggregate quarrying are finally kept in mind because aggregate is extracted close to major centers of demand (e.g., big cities) to minimize cost of transport.

This chapter introduces stone as construction material. First of all, a state-of-the-art information about terminology used in the stone sector is presented, incorporating ASTM, ISO, and EN definitions. Dimension stone types are then discussed according to several of the existing classes (granite, marble, and slate), including commercial and geological definitions. A further section is devoted to quarrying methods, covering the types of quarries and the techniques used to cut and extract the rocks. At the end of the heading, the Finnish method to mine granite and marble rocks is described. Following the chapter, dimension stone processing operations at the factory are shown; slate is specially considered because its processing operations are quite different to those used in granite and marble processing. The description also includes the several finishing surface methods applied to the exposed surfaces of dimension stone in order to achieve the desired aesthetic and/or performance characteristics of the stone. A next section describes the physical and mechanical properties, test methods, test standards, and main regulations for the different stone construction products. Durability of stone is briefly considered and the content of the last heading is devoted to the description of the main characteristics and uses of these construction materials.

This chapter explains the main characteristics and the manufacturing process of agglomerated stone, also termed engineered stone. Important topics are definition of this material according to EN standards, raw materials used to manufacture the product, and main production methods. Stone aggregates and mineral fillers, bonding agents, coloring agents, and additives are mixed together to make aggregated stone. The two different production methods to manufacture aggregated stone (discontinuous block process and semi-continuous slabs process) are outlined below. Properties and testing are considered in the chapter, and applications of engineered stone constitute the last heading. These applications include kitchen and bathroom countertop, floating floors, tiles for flooring, and indoor and outdoor cladding.

This chapter draws attention to terrazzo, which has been a surfacing material for hundreds of years. After definition of terms, raw materials to manufacture terrazzo are described, including type of aggregate, bonding agents (mainly Portland cement and resinous products) to hold the aggregates in place, and coloring pigments to obtain the desired final color. Later on, terrazzo systems (sand cushion, bonded, monolithic, and thin set) are outlined and the four main terrazzo types (standard, venetian, rustic, and palladiana) are discussed. The main characteristics of precast terrazzo tiles are then considered, including the production process, properties, and testing. The main applications of terrazzo constitute the last heading of the chapter.

This chapter draws attention to all topics related to cement, actually the most important hydraulic binder in construction processes. It starts with the description of raw materials and their essential features. The manufacture of cement is further summarized, from quarrying and preblending of raw materials to kiln burning operations and final blending and grinding of clinker with gypsum and admixtures. The four main phases of clinker (alite, belite, aluminate, and ferrite) are described as well as the chemical reactions taking place in the kiln. Bogue calculations with the objective to predict the final composition of clinker are discussed. The main types of hydraulic cements according to ASTM, EN, and ISO standards are then commented. At the end of the chapter, environmental considerations of cement manufacture are taken into account, including the utilization of alternative fuels for burning and the carbon capture and storage process of the CO₂ generated in the kiln.

This chapter provides a general overview of lime, which is one of the most commonly used alkali in the world. After a first heading devoted to the complex group of term definitions related to the lime sector, the raw materials for production of lime are reviewed, including fuels. Manufacturing processes are then described, involving quarrying and limestone preparation, calcination process, quicklime processing, and quicklime hydration. The most important type of kiln to manufacture quicklime, termed parallel flow regenerative kiln, will receive special attention. Physical and chemical properties of lime as well as the ASTM and EN tests involved in their determination are discussed. A summary of each type of lime (nonhydraulic limes, hydraulic limes, and sintered dolomite) is then listed. Environmental considerations are briefly outlined. Finally, the diverse world of construction applications of lime is summarized.

This chapter reviews the complex market of gypsum-based products. It begins with definitions, according to ASTM, EN, and ISO standards, of the most common products such as gypsum plaster or gypsum plasterboard. The next heading establishes the two main sources of raw materials for manufacturing gypsum products: natural and synthetic gypsum, e.g., flue-gas-desulfurization (FGD) gypsum. Moreover, the different geological occurrences of gypsum are summarized. Gypsum plaster manufacturing process as well as the main properties of gypsum and gypsum products (fire, acoustic, thermal, and other properties) are described. Gypsum products and applications are taken into account in the last heading of the chapter, including items specifically devoted to plaster and plasterboard. For every product, main characteristics as well as the manufacturing processes are discussed. Other important gypsum-based products such as glass fiber reinforced gypsum, gypsum blocks, or gypsum tiles are also considered.

This chapter introduces concrete as a construction material. Currently, it is the most widely used building material in the building and construction industry. Definitions of the term according to ASTM, ISO, and EN standards are presented. Constituent materials of concrete (mainly cement, aggregates, and water) are then discussed, including the definitions and types of admixtures, which nowadays contribute to the pefroduction of cost-effective and durable concrete structures. Additions and/or supplementary cementitious materials complete the list of constituent materials. A subsequent section is devoted to properties and tests of concrete, with emphasis on workability and compression strength, the most important properties of fresh and hardened concrete, respectively. The proportion of each constituent, named concrete mix design, is then summarized. Production of concrete, i.e., handling, batching, mixing, transportation, placing, compacting, and curing, accounts for the next group of headings of the chapter. Durability of concrete is briefly described. Thus, sulfate and acid attack, alkali-aggregate reaction, frost attack—freeze-thaw damage, erosion/abrasion, fire, and corrosion are properly explained. The next section describes precast concrete elements, which are units cast and cured in a place other than the final location in the works. It includes a brief description of structural and nonstructural elements. Subsequently, reinforced concrete, which revolutionized the construction industry in the last century, is introduced. Prestressed concrete closes the chapter, taking into account the two distinct systems of prestressing, pretensioning, and post-tensioning.

This chapter provides a description of the different types of concrete that have been developed to extend the range of properties of the conventional concrete described in ► Chap. 9. Some of these properties are accomplished utilizing alternative materials, e.g., lightweight and heavyweight aggregates, changes in mixture compositions, i.e., no-fines concrete, or an extensive use of admixtures, i.e., high-strength concrete or self-compacting concrete. These types of concrete are usually grouped under the term special concrete, the five most important types being fiber-reinforced concrete, high-strength concrete, self-compacting concrete, lightweight concrete, and sprayed concrete. A sixth type termed stamped concrete is discussed although it represents a specific application of concrete in pavement industry rather than a proper special concrete.

This chapter discusses mortars for the building and construction industry. As in the case of concrete, mortar is manufactured by mixing aggregates, cementitious materials, water, and admixtures and additives if required. Definitions dealing with mortars are first presented, followed by the principal methods to classify types of mortars. Description of constituent materials of mortar is then carried out, including some data about mix proportions of the mortar constituents. Further headings are devoted to properties and tests of mortars, with emphasis on the most important properties of both fresh and hardened mortars. The chapter continues with a brief description of the dry mix mortar production process, including raw material storage, dosing, and mixing. The main types of mortars, i.e., masonry and rendering, are discussed in an abbreviated form at the end of the chapter.

This chapter deals with the group of building and construction materials termed ceramic products. They include a variety of products such as bricks, roof tiles, wall and floor tiles, and sanitary ware. After summarizing the characteristics of the major types of raw materials used in the construction ceramic industry, the complex world of clay and clay minerals is introduced, including the geological environments of formation of these natural materials. Main groups of ceramic products are further described. Definition and types of bricks as well as their manufacturing process are discussed with the incorporation of a heading devoted to refractory bricks. Roof tiles are then considered. Wall and floor tiles are the next group of ceramic products to be summarized. Their definition and types, manufacturing process, and glazes and frits products, which are crucial in the current wall and floor tiles industry, are introduced. The last heading of the chapter is devoted to sanitary wear, of great importance in the present building sector.

This chapter introduces glass as building and construction material. First of all, raw materials used in the manufacture of glass are presented, silica sand being the most important raw material for glass making. Next heading is devoted to the classification of glass types by chemical composition. Soda-lime silicate glass is the most important type in building applications. Manufacturing processes of glass products are described. Later on, the main types of basic glass products used in construction are considered: flat (float) glass, tempered glass, laminated glass, insulating glass, curved glass, glass wool, and glass blocks and pavers. Finally, recycling of glass is summarized.

This chapter deals with bituminous materials, which are mainly used in road construction. Complex terminology is discussed before introducing the use of bitumen in ancient times. Manufacture of bitumen, i.e., distillation and blending, is then summarized along with the main features of the internal structure of bitumen (asphaltenes and maltenes). Next heading is devoted to describe the main properties of bitumen. Five main bitumen types are defined as follows: penetration grade bitumen, polymer-modified bitumen, bitumen emulsion, cutback bitumen and fluxed bitumen, and oxidized bitumen. The principal test methods for measuring specific properties of bitumen are outlined, including the significant needle penetration test and softening point—ring and ball. Durability of bitumen, mainly expressed as aging of the bitumen products, is then overviewed. The next section of the chapter deals with main applications of bituminous materials: pavements, waterproofing (shingles and membranes), and paints. Finally, sustainability of bituminous consumption is discussed, with emphasis on reclaimed (recycled) asphalt pavement.

This chapter draws attention metals and alloys used in construction. After explaining the differences between ferrous and nonferrous metals and alloys, the chapter follows up with the production processes of ferrous metals and alloys, describing ironmaking (blast furnace) and steelmaking (basic oxygen or electric arc furnace) in a summary way. Main characteristics of cast irons (white, gray, malleable, and spheroidal cast iron) and steel are further summarized, including steel recycling (steel is the most recycled material in the world). Corrosion of metals is described, and stainless steel, which is a consequence of corrosion issues generated in steel, is also discussed. Main metal forming processes (rolling, drawing, forging, and extrusion) are then commented. At the end of the chapter, a brief description of nonferrous metals and alloys, especially the aluminum and copper ones, is included.

This chapter provides description of different types of plastics used in building and construction. In a broad sense, the utilization of plastics in building and construction can be focused on two main markets: buildings and civil engineering. The first market is discussed here while plastics applied to civil engineering; that is, geosynthetics will be described in the next chapter of the book. The most important types of polymers used in building and construction (polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonate, and polyurethane) are summarized at the beginning of the chapter. Main features of raw material for plastics (petroleum) are developed below, including geology and distillation of petroleum. Although the use of plastic is everywhere in buildings, four major applications (roofing systems and house wraps, piping, insulation, and glazing, windows, and doors) are outlined at the end of the chapter.

Chapter 17 provides an introduction to geosynthetics. The description begins with definitions of the term, including those from ASTM and EN ISO standards, and the reasons for the explosion of geosynthetic materials in the civil engineering market. The next heading discusses the raw materials used in manufacturing geosynthetics, polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), and polyester (polyethylene terephthalate—PET) being the most commonly used polymers. In specific applications, some geotextiles can incorporate natural biodegradable fibers. Manufacturing processes of geosynthetics are then discussed, including nonwoven, woven, and knitting methods. Subsequently, geosynthetic functions are described; hydraulic functions include filtration, drainage, and fluid(gas) barrier while mechanical functions are mainly separation, reinforcement, and protection. The next topic covers description of the most commonly available geosynthetics, i.e., geotextiles, geomembranes, geogrids, geonets, geocells, geofoams, geomats, geosynthetic clay liners, and geocomposites. At the end of the chapter, geosynthetics applications are kept in mind, including embankments on soft soils, erosion control, hydraulic landfills, railroads, roadways, and retaining walls. To finish the chapter, geosynthetic standards are very briefly discussed.

This chapter introduces the reader to the world of wood and wood-based products. After summarizing the main definitions and used terminology, main types of wood are discussed, including differences between hardwood and softwood. Structure, chemical composition, and main properties of wood are further addressed. The behavior of wood to fire is also introduced. Then, processing of wood is explained, including peeling process to manufacture veneers. Wood-based products (plywood, wood-based panels, and glued laminated timber) are further described. Biodeterioration of wood by fungi and insects is taken into account in view of paramount importance in wood products. Consequently, wood preservation (wood preservatives and preserving methods) is explained. The last headings of the chapter are devoted to cork: origin, main properties, processing methods, and construction applications.

This chapter explains the main characteristics of construction and demolition waste (CDW). Important topics are the definition of this material as well as its composition: concrete, bricks, metals, glass, asphalt, wood, etc. Management of construction and demolition waste is discussed. Valorization plants for recycling of CDW are described, including the two main plant types: stationary and mobile. To finish the chapter, recycling processes are discussed and the most important product obtained throughout these processes, i.e., recycled concrete aggregate, is explained in some detail.

This chapter deals with the diverse world of coating materials. They are products, in liquid, paste, and/or powder forms, that, when applied onto a substrate, form a layer possessing protective, decorative, and/or other specific properties (ISO EN 4618 standard). After introduction describing terms commonly used in the market, i.e., coatings, paints, and varnishes, the principal functions of coating materials are outlined. The components (binders, solvents, pigments, and additives) and the raw materials to their manufacture are discussed below. Manufacturing process of coating materials is the next heading. The chapter ends with the main applications of these products in building and construction, with special attention to architectural coating materi als.