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2022 | Book

The Foreign Ministry Read chapter Read first chapter

Diplomacy

Theory and Practice

Author: G. R. Berridge

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

Part of: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

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About this book

This fully revised and expanded edition of Diplomacy, written by an internationally respected researcher and teacher of the subject, is richly illustrated with examples from the worlds of health and commerce as well as high politics. The instances included are mostly contemporary, but considerable historical background to the diplomatic methods themselves is always provided. Among other features, new to this edition is a list of topics for seminar discussion or essays, as well as annotated further reading at the end of each chapter.

Following a chapter on the foreign ministry, Part I of this book deals with the art of negotiation (prenegotiations, around-the-table negotiations, diplomatic momentum, packaging agreements, and following up); Part II covers conventional modes of diplomacy (embassies, telecommunications, consulates, secret intelligence by ‘legals’, conferences, summits, and public diplomacy); and Part III examines diplomacy in hostile circumstances (embassy substitutes such as representative offices and interests sections, special missions, and mediation). Students and educators of diplomacy will find much of value in the latest edition of this highly regarded and much-cited textbook.

Table of Contents

Frontmatter
1. The Foreign Ministry
Abstract
This chapter begins with the origins of the foreign ministry and proceeds to an examination of its embattled position today. In most states, it now formally shares control over the making of foreign policy with other ministries, executive agencies, and electronically-connected missions abroad. The chapter shows how, nevertheless, it tends to retain significant influence because of its broader perspective, geographical and language expertise, control of the diplomatic service, investment in public diplomacy, nurturing of domestic allies—and because of the reluctant acceptance by other government departments that it is uniquely positioned to coordinate the state’s complex international relations. Controversial questions highlighted include the relevance of policy planning and whether this ministry should control the distribution of development aid.
G. R. Berridge

Part I

Frontmatter
2. Prenegotiations
Abstract
Despite their name, prenegotiations are the first stage of negotiations. Otherwise known as ‘preliminaries’ or ‘talks about talks’, they are usually informal and well out of the public gaze, especially in bilateral—as opposed to multilateral—diplomacy. This chapter deals in sequence with the three main questions requiring agreement at this stage: first, whether substantive, around-the-table negotiations are worthwhile; second, which items should be on the agenda and which taken first; and third, what procedures should be employed in negotiating them. Under the last heading, the chapter deals with how secrecy is to be handled; what format the negotiations should take (e.g., direct or indirect); their venue; the level, size, and composition of delegations; and when the main talks should start.
G. R. Berridge
3. ‘Around-the-Table’ Negotiations
Abstract
In this chapter, such negotiations are broken down into two stages. The first is the formula stage, and under this heading classic examples such as ‘land for peace’ in the Arab–Israeli conflict are provided, the chief characteristics of a good formula are discussed, and the merits of alternative approaches to securing such an end—including ‘step-by-step’ and ‘linkage’—are considered. The second is the details stage of negotiations, where the formula has to be fleshed out. Here, emphasis is given to explaining why this is the most difficult stage, and how it might be successfully navigated. In describing different negotiating strategies, Homans’s theorem is noted. Among examples provided in this chapter are the nuclear talks with Iran.
G. R. Berridge
4. Diplomatic Momentum
Abstract
Although the parties to a negotiation remain committed to progress, its momentum might falter and even collapse. This chapter examines the methods employed to minimize these risks. The step-by-step approach is one way; another is the circulation of a ‘non-paper’. But most prominence is given here to the following methods: first, the use of deadlines, which might be self-imposed, external, or symbolic, with the Holy Grail being a conjunction of two or more; second, the employment of metaphors of movement, notably those of the train and the automobile; third, publicity, where flying kites and talking up the talks are common tactics; and fourth, raising the level of the talks as a last resort. Among the examples provided is the Good Friday Agreement on Northern Ireland.
G. R. Berridge
5. Packaging Agreements
Abstract
Diplomatic agreements vary in form to a bewildering degree: in title or style, textual structure, language, and whether written or oral; they also vary in whether they are publicized or kept secret. This chapter explains what form an agreement might take depending on whether its authors believe that a premium attaches to international legal obligations, which favor a treaty, irrespective of what it is called; signaling importance, which favors a ‘Treaty’ so-called or a non-binding agreement with a grand title such as The Atlantic Charter; convenience, which favors, for example, a memorandum of understanding or exchange of latters; or saving face, which favors such devices as euphemisms, waffling, side letters, and tucking away sensitive concessions in obscure appendices. The chapter deals with UN treaty registration.
G. R. Berridge
6. Following Up
Abstract
States often sign agreements they intend to observe only in limited fashion or not at all; or are well-intentioned but find they cannot deliver on their promises. Therefore, compliance mechanisms must be used to follow them up. This chapter begins by looking at early methods, including treaties of guarantee, but concentrates on the characteristic modern mechanisms. The first is monitoring of progress by experts, which is typical of arms control agreements. The second is periodic review by a ‘conference of the parties’, which—by naming and shaming—is designed to pressure defaulters, and is well exemplified by the Climate Change review meetings. The third is capacity building for low income countries, common to treaties making expensive and complex technical demands on their signatories.
G. R. Berridge

Part II

Frontmatter
7. Embassies
Abstract
This chapter begins by glimpsing the origins of the resident embassy in the late fifteenth century, and then notes the major features of the system of bilateral diplomacy of which it was the anchor, including the professionalization of diplomacy beginning in the nineteenth century and the codification of diplomatic law in 1961. What follows is an account of how the normal embassy is staffed and organized, and the functions it fulfils; particular attention is given to locally engaged staff, the economic/commercial section, the health attaché, and—not to overlook a growing feature of its dark side—its role in transnational repression. Also examined are deviations from the norm: the fortress embassy; the militarized embassy; and the mini-embassy, which is sometimes rescued by co-location.
G. R. Berridge
8. Telecommunications
Abstract
Direct telecommunication between governments is now a very important channel for the conduct of diplomacy, in normal times as well as in crises. This chapter begins by examining the strong appeal of telephone diplomacy, also known as audio teleconferencing, to heads of state and government and senior officials; this endures despite its numerous risks, which the chapter also details. The second half of the chapter deals with video-conferencing, the medium’s advantages and disadvantages once more structuring the analysis. Video-conferencing in diplomacy certainly took off during the pandemic in 2020–2021 but levelled off at a low altitude. To support this conclusion, the chapter notes the anxiety of diplomats in key negotiations to revert to face-to-face talks at the first opportunity.
G. R. Berridge
9. Consulates
Abstract
This chapter begins by noting the medieval origin of consuls as spokesmen to the local authorities of trading settlements abroad, their gradual takeover by the state, and the later merger of consular with diplomatic services. It proceeds to argue, nevertheless, that typical consular work remains different from typical diplomatic work, a fact reflected in the differences between consular and diplomatic immunity (except in the consular sections of embassies), and the existence of separate consular corps in major cities. As population movements and the size of expatriate communities have swollen dramatically, assistance to nationals—whether in distress or not—has become the hallmark of modern consular work. Chiefly for reasons of economy, honorary consuls now play an even more important role.
G. R. Berridge
10. Secret Intelligence
Abstract
The association of secret intelligence with diplomacy is as old as diplomacy itself. This chapter begins by looking at how ambassadors were initially agent-runners themselves before gladly surrendering the task to the new secret intelligence agencies that began to emerge before World War I. The separation was, however, incomplete because military attachés and civilian intelligence officers began to be appointed to embassies, the latter under ‘diplomatic cover’. The advantages to them of such cover are explained, as are the disadvantages to ambassadors of having such cuckoos in their nests, large among them the risk of embarrassment caused by their activities and the potential for them to take over the mission. The chapter concludes with an account of why ambassadors tolerate their secret cuckoos.
G. R. Berridge
11. Conferences
Abstract
This chapter is about multilateral diplomacy, conferences attended by three or more states. It explains why it accelerated in the first half of the twentieth century and why some conferences become permanent; that is, international organizations. Attention is given to their characteristic procedures, especially those dealing with venue, participation, agenda, public debate or private discussion, and above all decision-making, whether by voting or consensus. In view of the Covid-19 pandemic, the examples in this chapter are weighted in favor of multilateral health diplomacy, from the International Sanitary Conferences in the nineteenth century to the World Health Organization of today. The chapter concludes with a short examination of the ‘new multilateralism’ typified by global health partnerships such as GAVI, the Vaccine Alliance.
G. R. Berridge
12. Summits
Abstract
This chapter begins with the origins of summitry, and explains why it was traditionally regarded with horror by professional diplomats. Following an account of the general case for the defense, it analyzes the diplomatic advantages and disadvantages of three types of summit. The first of these is the serial summit, a periodic meeting of the leaders of states in important relationships, and it is argued that these, whether bilateral such as those of France and German or multilateral as in the case of the Summits of the Americas, tend to be diplomatically the most productive. The second is the ad hoc or one-off summit, and here a special mention is made of the funeral summit or ‘working funeral’. The third is the high-level exchange of views.
G. R. Berridge
13. Public Diplomacy
Abstract
This chapter takes the unfashionable position that ‘public diplomacy’ is what we call our propaganda, while ‘propaganda’ is what the other side does. Irrespective of the label, its aim is to influence foreign governments indirectly by appealing over their heads to the people with influence upon them—whether the mass of the population or just ‘the influential few’. Nevertheless, it varies enormously in its style as well as its targets; less so in the vehicles it employs—now chiefly the internet and its associated social media tools, shortwave radio, and satellite television. The lead in ‘public diplomacy’ is frequently given to foreign ministries, and is now probably the most important duty of ambassadors—although, for other embassy staff, only one task among many.
G. R. Berridge

Part III

Frontmatter
14. Embassy Substitutes
Abstract
Regular embassies cannot be employed in the absence of diplomatic relations. However, diplomatic functions might still be performed by substitutes bearing other names. These are interests sections sheltered by protecting powers, consulates, representative offices, and front missions such as commercial offices. This chapter considers the advantages and disadvantages of each of these ersatz embassies, and why one is preferred to another in different circumstances. The chapter also explains why, except for the representative office on the higher rungs of the ladder to embassy status, all labor under handicaps that the normal embassy does not experience. Highlighted among many examples are the interests sections in the US–Cuba relationship, consulates in Jerusalem, and the liaison offices exchanged between the USA and China in the 1970s.
G. R. Berridge
15. Special Missions
Abstract
Special missions are missions sent abroad to conduct diplomacy with a limited purpose and usually for a limited time. Led by special envoys working under a permissive legal regime, they are a feature of normal diplomatic relationships but are particularly valuable to diplomacy between hostile states. This chapter begins by discussing their general advantages in such circumstances, and then breaks down the analysis via a classification based on their political weight and nature of appointment: high- and low-level unofficial envoys, and high- and low-level official envoys. In the account of official envoys, a special word is said about the employment of intelligence officers in this capacity. The chapter concludes by considering when it is advisable to dispatch special envoys in secret and when in public.
G. R. Berridge
16. Mediation
Abstract
This chapter begins by explaining the nature of mediation, in the process distinguishing it from good offices, conciliation, and arbitration. Mediators come in all shapes and sizes and have different motives, but are conveniently divided into those represented by the terms ‘track one’ and ‘track two’—states and international organizations, and private individuals and non-governmental organizations, respectively. Multiparty mediation is described as now so common as probably to be the norm, and can be simultaneous or sequential, coordinated or uncoordinated; however, the incentive to achieve a settlement is greatest if one mediator assumes sole responsibility, for its prestige is at stake. The chapter concludes with a consideration of the attributes of the ideal mediator and the doctrine of the ‘ripe moment’.
G. R. Berridge
Backmatter
Metadata
Title
Diplomacy
Author
G. R. Berridge
Copyright Year
2022
Electronic ISBN
978-3-030-85931-2
Print ISBN
978-3-030-85930-5
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85931-2

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