1 Background
2 Methods
2.1 SBM efficiency without undesirable outputs
2.2 SBM efficiency with undesirable outputs
2.3 Empirical strategies
2.4 Data
Variable | Dimension | Obs. | Mean | SD | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Real GDP | mil. 2005US$ | 3822 | 338,769.200 | 1,018,679.000 | 1206.338 | 1.31E + 07 |
Real GDP per capita | 2005US$ | 3822 | 10,545.990 | 11,845.310 | 199.208 | 116,423.5 |
Labor | million | 3822 | 19.877 | 69.734 | 0.045 | 7.72E + 02 |
Capital stock | mil. 2005US$ | 3822 | 1,019,600.000 | 3,225,986.000 | 1847.514 | 4.01E + 07 |
Capital-labor ratio | 2005US$/worker | 3822 | 77,730.800 | 85,428.740 | 1131.321 | 868,037.4 |
Trade openess | % | 3518 | 71.004 | 52.373 | 0.703 | 460.4711 |
SO2 emissions | Giga gram | 3822 | 0.973 | 3.070 | 0.001 | 39.903 |
Nox emissions | Giga gram | 3822 | 0.766 | 2.186 | 0.003 | 20.742 |
PM10 emissions | Giga gram | 3822 | 0.811 | 1.881 | 0.000 | 19.334 |
CO2 emissions | Giga gram | 3822 | 222.401 | 660.099 | 0.033 | 7809.190 |
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Environmental efficiency results
3.2 Determinants of environmental efficiency
SO2
| NOx | PM10 | CO2
| SO2
| NOx | PM10 | CO2
| |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fixed | ||||||||
ln I | 0.343*** | 0.269*** | 0.221*** | 0.389*** | 0.423*** | 0.328*** | 0.288*** | 0.446*** |
(0.065) | (0.057) | (0.054) | (0.110) | (0.067) | (0.057) | (0.054) | (0.094) | |
ln K/L | −0.073 | 0.007 | 0.017 | −0.025 | −0.253*** | −0.158*** | −0.136** | −0.230*** |
(0.075) | (0.056) | (0.059) | (0.071) | (0.066) | (0.049) | (0.053) | (0.072) | |
ln T | 0.095* | 0.053 | 0.055 | −0.049 | 0.130 | 0.068 | 0.086 | −0.060 |
(0.055) | (0.038) | (0.045) | (0.079) | (0.081) | (0.049) | (0.060) | (0.114) | |
Constant | −2.043***
| −2.122***
| −1.839***
| −2.326***
| −1.255**
| −1.181**
| −1.159*
| −0.932 |
(0.176) | (0.516) | (0.549) | (0.697) | (0.630) | (0.579) | (0.606) | (0.583) | |
Time dummies | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Adj R2 | 0.195 | 0.26 | 0.208 | 0.23 | 0.309 | 0.422 | 0.326 | 0.138 |
Random | ||||||||
ln I | 0.353*** | 0.285*** | 0.240*** | 0.395*** | 0.428*** | 0.337*** | 0.302*** | 0.451*** |
(0.064) | (0.057) | (0.055) | (0.116) | (0.063) | (0.055) | (0.053) | (0.103) | |
ln K/L | −0.113* | −0.04 | −0.023 | −0.106 | −0.258*** | −0.168*** | −0.146*** | −0.266*** |
(0.065) | (0.053) | (0.055) | (0.071) | (0.059) | (0.046) | (0.050) | (0.079) | |
ln T | 0.093** | 0.052 | 0.052 | −0.021 | 0.113 | 0.056 | 0.071 | −0.051 |
(0.047) | (0.033) | (0.037) | (0.056) | (0.071) | (0.042) | (0.051) | (0.085) | |
Constant | −1.689***
| −1.744***
| −1.571***
| −1.633***
| −1.174** | −1.121*** | −1.130** | −0.65 |
(0.394) | (0.387) | (0.414) | (0.473) | (0.468) | (0.426) | (0.439) | (0.426) | |
Time dummies | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
adj R2 | 0.195 | 0.26 | 0.208 | 0.055 | 0.317 | 0.433 | 0.338 | 0.151 |
N | 3439 | 3439 | 3439 | 3439 | 3439 | 3439 | 3439 | 3439 |
Hausman | 23.81*** | 59.75*** | 35.36*** | 24.95*** | 6.66 | 14.49 | 15.55 | 4.53 |
SO2
| NOx | PM10 | CO2
| SO2
| NOx | PM10 | CO2
| |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fixed | ||||||||
ln I | 0.180** | 0.163*** | 0.117* | 0.270** | 0.267*** | 0.228*** | 0.192*** | 0.335*** |
(0.077) | (0.060) | (0.059) | (0.106) | (0.075) | (0.053) | (0.055) | (0.083) | |
ln K/L | −0.036 | 0.022 | 0.015 | 0.031 | −0.252*** | −0.177*** | −0.170** | −0.214*** |
(0.094) | (0.071) | (0.079) | (0.103) | (0.082) | (0.065) | (0.071) | (0.077) | |
ln T | 0.094* | 0.052 | 0.053 | −0.049 | 0.095 | 0.042 | 0.058 | −0.082 |
(0.053) | (0.037) | (0.044) | (0.077) | (0.071) | (0.047) | (0.057) | (0.109) | |
ln T RI | 0.059* | 0.038*** | 0.036*** | 0.046*** | 0.046 | 0.028*** | 0.025** | 0.035** |
(0.033) | (0.012) | (0.013) | (0.017) | (0.031) | (0.010) | (0.010) | (0.016) | |
lnT RKL | 0.002 | 0.007 | 0.016 | −0.016 | 0.015 | 0.02 | 0.027 | 0.002 |
(0.033) | (0.022) | (0.026) | (0.038) | (0.031) | (0.022) | (0.025) | (0.034) | |
Constant | −1.281 | −1.543** | −1.129 | −2.012* | −0.049 | −0.23 | −0.102 | −0.224 |
(0.785) | (0.608) | (0.685) | (1.068) | (0.718) | (0.658) | (0.677) | (0.686) | |
Time dummies | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Adj R2 | 0.189 | 0.246 | 0.19 | 0.057 | 0.298 | 0.385 | 0.288 | 0.137 |
Random | ||||||||
ln I | 0.201*** | 0.187*** | 0.145** | 0.283*** | 0.275*** | 0.240*** | 0.212*** | 0.340*** |
(0.074) | (0.062) | (0.062) | (0.110) | (0.072) | (0.052) | (0.055) | (0.090) | |
ln K/L | −0.076 | −0.019 | −0.022 | −0.039 | −0.256*** | −0.182*** | −0.176*** | −0.240*** |
(0.085) | (0.068) | (0.075) | (0.087) | (0.075) | (0.061) | (0.067) | (0.072) | |
ln T | 0.086** | 0.048 | 0.046 | −0.022 | 0.074 | 0.028 | 0.041 | −0.074 |
(0.043) | (0.032) | (0.037) | (0.052) | (0.061) | (0.041) | (0.049) | (0.079) | |
ln T RI | 0.055* | 0.035*** | 0.033*** | 0.044** | 0.045 | 0.027*** | 0.023** | 0.035** |
(0.030) | (0.012) | (0.012) | (0.018) | (0.029) | (0.010) | (0.010) | (0.017) | |
lnT RKL | −0.005 | −0.001 | 0.01 | −0.025 | 0.012 | 0.016 | 0.024 | −0.004 |
(0.032) | (0.019) | (0.023) | (0.037) | (0.030) | (0.020) | (0.022) | (0.033) | |
Constant | −0.956 | −1.254** | −0.912 | −1.442 | 0.013 | −0.225 | −0.125 | −0.014 |
(0.691) | (0.522) | (0.587) | (0.898) | (0.618) | (0.564) | (0.560) | (0.606) | |
Time dummies | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Adj R2 | 0.21 | 0.278 | 0.213 | 0.078 | 0.312 | 0.406 | 0.309 | 0.153 |
N | 3439 | 3439 | 3439 | 3439 | 3439 | 3439 | 3439 | 3439 |
Hausman | 50.72*** | 93.65*** | 61.49*** | 30.76*** | 17.68 | 26.43 | 25.42 | 6.99 |