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2022 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

2. From a State-Oriented to a Human-Oriented Approach

Author : Selman Özdan

Published in: The Human Rights Challenge to Immunity in International Law

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter explores the concept of State sovereignty. It further demonstrates how international law imposes on States the obligation to protect fundamental human rights, and how the State-oriented approach has gradually given way to a human rights-oriented approach. Through analysis of the transition from Westphalian to post-Westphalian sovereignty and by a reappraisal of the relationship between State sovereignty and human rights, Chap. 2 considers the contradictions between State sovereignty and international law and provides a theoretical framework for immunities. Thus Chap. 2 provides and explains the link between State sovereignty and immunities.

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previous chapter Introduction

next chapter Human Rights Recognised as Jus Cogens

Malcolm N. Shaw, International Law, 7th ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 144.

Jens Bartelson, A Genealogy of Sovereignty (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 23.

Jean Bodin, On Sovereignty: Four Chapters from the Six Books of the Commonwealth, ed. Julian H. Franklin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

Carl Schmitt, Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 16.

Bodin, On Sovereignty, 1.

Jean Bodin, Six Books of the Commonwealth, ed. M. J. Tooley (Oxford: Alden Press, 1955), 207.

Bodin, On Sovereignty, 34.

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. J. C. A. Gaskin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 138.

Hobbes, 116.

Francis Harry Hinsley, Sovereignty, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 36.

Sir Robert Jennings and Sir Arthur Watts, eds., Oppenheim’s International Law – Vol. I, Peace – Introduction and Part I, 9th ed. (Harlow: Longman, 1992), 122.

Emer de Vattel, The Law of Nations, or, Principles of the Law of Nature, Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns, ed. Bela Kapossy and Richard Whatmore (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 2008), 83.

G. W. F. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Rights, ed. Allen W. Wood, trans. H. B. Nisbet, 8th ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 366–67.

National Assembly of France, ‘The Constitution of 1791’ (1791) Title III Article 1.

Timothy Endicott, ‘The Logic of Freedom and Power’, in The Philosophy of International Law, ed. Samantha Besson and John Tasioulas (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 245–46.

Albert Venn Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (London: Liberty Classics, 1915), 27.

Neil MacCormick, Questioning Sovereignty: Law, State, and Nation in the European Commonwealth (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 129; Neil MacCormick, ‘On Sovereignty and Post-Sovereignty: Questioning Sovereignty’, in Readings in the Philosophy of Law, ed. Keith C. Culver, 2nd ed. (Toronto: Broadview Press, 2008), 418.

Saul Newman, ‘Introduction: Re-Encountering Stirner’s Ghosts’, in Max Stirner, ed. Saul Newman (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 6.

Jacques Maritain, ‘The Concept of Sovereignty’, in In Defense of Sovereignty, ed. W. J. Stankiewicz (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), 62.

Christian Wolff, The Laws of Nations Treated According to a Scientific Method, ed. Thomas Ahnert, trans. Joseph Drake (Carmel, IN: Liberty Fund, 2017), 188.

Stephen D. Krasner, Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 20–23.

Hans Kelsen, Pure Theory of Law, trans. Max Knight (Clark, NJ: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2005), 293.

Martti Koskenniemi, From Apology to Utopia: The Structure of International Legal Argument (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 228.

Koskenniemi, 229.

Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, ed. George Schwab (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 26.

Schmitt, Political Theology, 5–6.

Koskenniemi, From Apology to Utopia: The Structure of International Legal Argument, 227.

Koskenniemi, 227.

Leo Gross, ‘The Peace of Westphalia: 1648–1948’, The American Journal of International Law 42, no. 1 (1948): 28.

Stéphane Beaulac, ‘The Westphalian Legal Orthodoxy–Myth or Reality?’, Journal of the History of International Law 2 (2000): 148–77.

Jeremy Larkins, From Hierarchy to Anarchy: Territory and Politics before Westphalia (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 3.

Gross, ‘The Peace of Westphalia: 1648–1948’, 28.

Janice E. Thomson, ‘State Sovereignty in International Relations: Bridging the Gap between Theory and Empirical Research’, International Studies Quarterly 39, no. 2 (1995): 227.

Peter Malanczuk, Akehurst’s Modern Introduction to International Law, 7th ed. (London: Routledge, 1997), 17.

Jack Donnelly, ‘State Sovereignty and International Human Rights’, Ethics & International Affairs 28, no. 02 (2014): 226.

David Held and Anthony McGrew, ‘Globalization and the Liberal Democratic State’, Government and Opposition 28, no. 2 (1993): 265.

Robert Owen Keohane, ‘Sovereignty, Interdependence, and International Institutions’, in Ideas & Ideals: Essays on Politics in Honor of Stanley Hoffmann, ed. Linda B. Miller and Michael Joseph Smith (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 91–107.

Article 2(1) of the UN Charter states that: ‘The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members’. UN, ‘Charter of the United Nations’, 1 UNTS XVI (1945) Article 2(1).

Gideon Boas, Public International Law: Contemporary Principles and Perspectives (Cheltenham and Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2012), 159.

Emer de Vattel, The Law of Nations: Or, Principles of the Law of Nature, Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns (London: Printed for J. Newbery [etc.], 1760), 6.

Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, ICJ Reports 240 (1992) at 270.

Benjamin N. Schiff, ‘Universalism Meets Sovereignty at the International Criminal Court’, in Negotiating Sovereignty and Human Rights: Actors and Issues in Contemporary Human Rights Politics, ed. Noha Shawki and Michaelene Cox (Surrey: Ashgate, 2009), 59.

Tom Lansford, ‘Post-Westphalian Europe? Sovereignty and the Modern Nation-State’, International Studies 37, no. 1 (2000): 2–4.

By the ‘Treaty of December 10th, 1898, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States’. The Island of Palmas Case, United States of America v. Netherlands, Reports of International Arbitral Awards 829 (Permanent Court of Arbitration 1928) at 837.

The Island of Palmas Case, United States of America v. Netherlands, Reports of International Arbitral Awards at 837.

The Island of Palmas Case, United States of America v. Netherlands, Reports of International Arbitral Awards at 870–71.

The Island of Palmas Case, United States of America v. Netherlands, Reports of International Arbitral Awards at 838.

Richard Falk, ‘Revisiting Westphalia, Discovering Post-Westphalia’, The Journal of Ethics 6, no. 4 (2002): 319–20.

Thomson, ‘State Sovereignty in International Relations’, 219.

Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics, 4th ed. (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 35.

Krasner, Sovereignty, 20.

Carl Schmitt, The Nomos of the Earth in the International Law of the Jus Publicum Europaeum (New York, NY: Telos Press Publishing, 2003), 79.

Richard Falk, Human Rights Horizons: The Pursuit of Justice in a Globalizing World (New York, NY: Routledge, 2000), 9.

Falk, 9.

Bjorn Hettne, ‘The Fate of Citizenship in Post-Westphalia’, Citizenship Studies 4, no. 1 (2000): 38.

Stephen D. Krasner, ‘Problematic Sovereignty’, in Problematic Sovereignty: Contested Rules and Political Possibilities, ed. Stephen D. Krasner (Chichester, NY: Columbia University Press, 2001), 6.

Wendy Brown, Walled States, Waning Sovereignty (Brooklyn, NY: Zone Books, 2010), 24.

Francis G. Jacobs, The Sovereignty of Law: The European Way (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 4–5.

Jacobs, 5.

Gus Van Harten, ‘The Public—Private Distinction in the International Arbitration of Individual Claims against the State’, International and Comparative Law Quarterly 56, no. 02 (2007): 376.

See Antony Anghie, ‘Rethinking Sovereignty in International Law’, Annual Review of Law and Social Science 5, no. 1 (2009): 291–310; Christoph Schreuer, ‘The Waning of the Sovereign State: Towards a New Paradigm for International Law?’, European Journal of International Law 4, no. 1 (1993): 447–71.

Helmut Steinberger, ‘Sovereignty’, in Encyclopedia of Public International Law: States: Responsibility of States: International Law and Municipal Law, ed. Rudolf Dolzer et al., vol. 10 (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1987), 414.

Thomas W. Smith, History and International Relations (London: Routledge, 1999), 34.

René Provost, International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 121.

Schreuer, ‘The Waning of the Sovereign State’, 447.

Robert McCorquodale, ‘The Individual and the International Legal System’, in International Law, ed. Malcolm D. Evans, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 321.

Provost, International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law, 277.

Martti Koskenniemi, ‘The Future of Statehood’, Harvard International Law Journal 32, no. 2 (1991): 406.

Hans Kelsen, ‘Sovereignty and International Law’, Georgetown Law Journal 48, no. 4 (1960): 637.

S.S. Wimbledon (United Kingdom, France, Italy & Japan v. Germany), Judgment, No. (ser. A) No. 1 (Permanent Court of International Justice 17 August 1923) at 16.

S.S. Wimbledon (United Kingdom, France, Italy & Japan v. Germany), Judgment at 22.

S.S. Wimbledon (United Kingdom, France, Italy & Japan v. Germany), Judgment at 33.

S.S. Wimbledon (United Kingdom, France, Italy & Japan v. Germany), Judgment at 25.

Jurisdiction of the European Commission of the Danube between Galatz and Braila, Advisory Opinion, No. (Ser. B) No. 14 (Permanent Court of International Justice 8 December 1927) at 36.

S.S. Wimbledon (United Kingdom, France, Italy & Japan v. Germany), Judgment at 24–25.

Case of the SS Lotus, Judgment, No. (Ser. A) No. 10 (Permanent Court of International Justice 7 September 1927) at 44.

Bardo Fassbender, ‘Sovereignty and Constitutionalism in International Law’, in Sovereignty in Transition, ed. Neil Walker (Portland, OR: Hart Publishing, 2006), 115–16.

Anghie, ‘Rethinking Sovereignty in International Law’, 306.

Jean L. Cohen, ‘Whose Sovereignty? Empire Versus International Law’, Ethics & International Affairs 18, no. 3 (2004): 15.

Louis Henkin, ‘That S Word: Sovereignty, and Globalization, and Human Rights, Et Cetera’, Fordham Law Review 68 (1999): 12.

Jost Delbrueck, ‘International Protection of Human Rights and State Sovereignty’, in Third World Attitudes Toward International Law: An Introduction, ed. Frederick E. Snyder and Surakiart Sathirathai (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987), 263.

See Richard Falk, ‘Responding to Severe Violations’, in Enhancing Global Human Rights, ed. Jorge I. Domínguez (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), 245.

Louis Henkin, ‘Human Rights and State Sovereignty’, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 25, no. 1 (1996): 33.

Robert Jackson, Sovereignty: The Evolution of an Idea (Cambridge: Polity, 2007), 114.

Donnelly, ‘State Sovereignty and International Human Rights’, 225.

Christian Reus-Smit, ‘Human Rights and the Social Construction of Sovereignty’, Review of International Studies 27, no. 04 (2001): 519.

See John Rawls, The Law of Peoples: With, The Idea of Public Reason Revisited (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001).

Reus-Smit, ‘Human Rights and the Social Construction of Sovereignty’, 519.

Kathryn Sikkink, ‘The Power of Principled Ideas: Human Rights Policies in the United States and Western Europe’, in Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change, ed. Judith Goldstein and Robert Owen Keohane (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 141.

Reus-Smit, ‘Human Rights and the Social Construction of Sovereignty’, 520.

Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 44–45.

W. Michael Reisman, ‘Sovereignty and Human Rights in Contemporary International Law’, American Journal of International Law 84, no. 4 (1990): 872.

Vesselin Popovski, ‘Sovereignty as Duty to Protect Human Rights’, UN Chronicle 41, no. 4 (2004): 16.

Stanley Hoffmann, World Disorders: Troubled Peace in the Post-Cold War Era (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1998), 159.

Hoffmann, 159.

Popovski, ‘Sovereignty as Duty to Protect Human Rights’, 17.

Rawls, The Law of Peoples, 25–27.

100

Kofi Annan, ‘Two Concepts of Sovereignty’, The Economist, 18 September 1999.

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———. Six Books of the Commonwealth. Edited by M. J. Tooley. Oxford: Alden Press, 1955.

Brown, Wendy. Walled States, Waning Sovereignty. Brooklyn, NY: Zone Books, 2010.CrossRef

Bull, Hedley. The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics. 4th ed. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.CrossRef

Case of the SS Lotus, Judgment, No. (Ser. A) No. 10 (Permanent Court of International Justice 7 September 1927).

Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, ICJ Reports 240 (1992).

Cohen, Jean L. ‘Whose Sovereignty? Empire Versus International Law’. Ethics & International Affairs 18, no. 3 (2004): 1–24.

Delbrueck, Jost. ‘International Protection of Human Rights and State Sovereignty’. In Third World Attitudes Toward International Law: An Introduction, edited by Frederick E. Snyder and Surakiart Sathirathai, 263–74. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987.

Dicey, Albert Venn. Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution. London: Liberty Classics, 1915.

Donnelly, Jack. ‘State Sovereignty and International Human Rights’. Ethics & International Affairs 28, no. 02 (2014): 225–38.CrossRef

Endicott, Timothy. ‘The Logic of Freedom and Power’. In The Philosophy of International Law, edited by Samantha Besson and John Tasioulas, 245–60. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Falk, Richard. Human Rights Horizons: The Pursuit of Justice in a Globalizing World. New York, NY: Routledge, 2000.

———. ‘Responding to Severe Violations’. In Enhancing Global Human Rights, edited by Jorge I. Domínguez. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979.

———. ‘Revisiting Westphalia, Discovering Post-Westphalia’. The Journal of Ethics 6, no. 4 (2002): 311–52.

Fassbender, Bardo. ‘Sovereignty and Constitutionalism in International Law’. In Sovereignty in Transition, edited by Neil Walker, 115–44. Portland, OR: Hart Publishing, 2006.

Gross, Leo. ‘The Peace of Westphalia: 1648–1948’. The American Journal of International Law 42, no. 1 (1948): 20–41.CrossRef

Hegel, G. W. F. Elements of the Philosophy of Rights. Edited by Allen W. Wood. Translated by H. B. Nisbet. 8th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Held, David, and Anthony McGrew. ‘Globalization and the Liberal Democratic State’. Government and Opposition 28, no. 2 (1993): 261–88.CrossRef

Henkin, Louis. ‘Human Rights and State Sovereignty’. Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 25, no. 1 (1996): 31–46.

———. ‘That S Word: Sovereignty, and Globalization, and Human Rights, Et Cetera’. Fordham Law Review 68 (1999): 1–14.

Hettne, Bjorn. ‘The Fate of Citizenship in Post-Westphalia’. Citizenship Studies 4, no. 1 (2000): 35–46.CrossRef

Hinsley, Francis Harry. Sovereignty. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan. Edited by J. C. A. Gaskin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Hoffmann, Stanley. World Disorders: Troubled Peace in the Post-Cold War Era. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1998.

Jackson, Robert. Sovereignty: The Evolution of an Idea. Cambridge: Polity, 2007.

Jackson, Robert H. Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Jacobs, Francis G. The Sovereignty of Law: The European Way. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.CrossRef

Jennings, Sir Robert, and Sir Arthur Watts, eds. Oppenheim’s International Law – Vol. I, Peace – Introduction and Part I. 9th ed. Harlow: Longman, 1992.

Jurisdiction of the European Commission of the Danube between Galatz and Braila, Advisory Opinion, No. (Ser. B) No. 14 (Permanent Court of International Justice 8 December 1927).

Kelsen, Hans. Pure Theory of Law. Translated by Max Knight. Clark, NJ: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2005.

———. ‘Sovereignty and International Law’. Georgetown Law Journal 48, no. 4 (1960): 627.

Keohane, Robert Owen. ‘Sovereignty, Interdependence, and International Institutions’. In Ideas & Ideals: Essays on Politics in Honor of Stanley Hoffmann, edited by Linda B. Miller and Michael Joseph Smith, 91–107. Boulder: Westview Press, 1993.

Koskenniemi, Martti. From Apology to Utopia: The Structure of International Legal Argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.CrossRef

———. ‘The Future of Statehood’. Harvard International Law Journal 32, no. 2 (1991): 397.

Krasner, Stephen D. ‘Problematic Sovereignty’. In Problematic Sovereignty: Contested Rules and Political Possibilities, edited by Stephen D. Krasner. Chichester, NY: Columbia University Press, 2001.CrossRef

———. Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.

Lansford, Tom. ‘Post-Westphalian Europe? Sovereignty and the Modern Nation-State’. International Studies 37, no. 1 (2000): 1–15.CrossRef

Larkins, Jeremy. From Hierarchy to Anarchy: Territory and Politics before Westphalia. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.CrossRef

MacCormick, Neil. ‘On Sovereignty and Post-Sovereignty: Questioning Sovereignty’. In Readings in the Philosophy of Law, edited by Keith C. Culver, 2nd ed., 414–24. Toronto: Broadview Press, 2008.

———. Questioning Sovereignty: Law, State, and Nation in the European Commonwealth. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Malanczuk, Peter. Akehurst’s Modern Introduction to International Law. 7th ed. London: Routledge, 1997.

Maritain, Jacques. ‘The Concept of Sovereignty’. In In Defense of Sovereignty, edited by W. J. Stankiewicz. London: Oxford University Press, 1969.

McCorquodale, Robert. ‘The Individual and the International Legal System’. In International Law, edited by Malcolm D. Evans, 2nd ed., 307–34. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

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Newman, Saul. ‘Introduction: Re-Encountering Stirner’s Ghosts’. In Max Stirner, edited by Saul Newman, 1–20. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

Popovski, Vesselin. ‘Sovereignty as Duty to Protect Human Rights’. UN Chronicle 41, no. 4 (2004).

Provost, René. International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Rawls, John. The Law of Peoples: With, The Idea of Public Reason Revisited. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001.CrossRef

Reisman, W. Michael. ‘Sovereignty and Human Rights in Contemporary International Law’. American Journal of International Law 84, no. 4 (1990): 866–76.

Reus-Smit, Christian. ‘Human Rights and the Social Construction of Sovereignty’. Review of International Studies 27, no. 04 (2001): 519–38.CrossRef

Schiff, Benjamin N. ‘Universalism Meets Sovereignty at the International Criminal Court’. In Negotiating Sovereignty and Human Rights: Actors and Issues in Contemporary Human Rights Politics, edited by Noha Shawki and Michaelene Cox, 59–80. Surrey: Ashgate, 2009.

Schmitt, Carl. Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.CrossRef

———. The Concept of the Political. Edited by George Schwab. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

———. The Nomos of the Earth in the International Law of the Jus Publicum Europaeum. New York, NY: Telos Press Publishing, 2003.

Schreuer, Christoph. ‘The Waning of the Sovereign State: Towards a New Paradigm for International Law?’ European Journal of International Law 4, no. 1 (1993): 447–71.CrossRef

Shaw, Malcolm N. International Law. 7th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.

Sikkink, Kathryn. ‘The Power of Principled Ideas: Human Rights Policies in the United States and Western Europe’. In Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change, edited by Judith Goldstein and Robert Owen Keohane. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993.

Smith, Thomas W. History and International Relations. London: Routledge, 1999.

S.S. Wimbledon (United Kingdom, France, Italy & Japan v. Germany), Judgment, No. (ser. A) No. 1 (Permanent Court of International Justice 17 August 1923).

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Vattel, Emer de. The Law of Nations: Or, Principles of the Law of Nature, Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns. London: Printed for J. Newbery [etc.], 1760.

———. The Law of Nations, or, Principles of the Law of Nature, Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns. Edited by Bela Kapossy and Richard Whatmore. Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 2008.

Wolff, Christian. The Laws of Nations Treated According to a Scientific Method. Edited by Thomas Ahnert. Translated by Joseph Drake. Carmel, IN: Liberty Fund, 2017.

Title: From a State-Oriented to a Human-Oriented Approach
Author: Selman Özdan
Publisher: Springer International Publishing
Book: The Human Rights Challenge to Immunity in International Law
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-92922-0

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-92923-7

Copyright Year: 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92923-7_2

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