Frontiers in Entrepreneurship

The body of entrepreneurship research is eclectic, stratified, and divergent, and it would be an ambitious task to present in this chapter an all-encompassing robust entrepreneurial historical theory. The multi-faceted and interdisciplinary nature of entrepreneurship sets constraints on such a grandiose and complex task.

Entrepreneurship as an emerging enquiry is interrogated and the rationale for engaging in entrepreneurial studies is discussed through several consolidated findings. Obstacles constraining the field are highlighted, with specific emphasis on how definitional caveats and theoretical incompleteness may lead to reluctance to accept entrepreneurship as an established discipline. The study of entreprenology is introduced as a means of establishing ontology for the field. The point is made that no discipline can exist without theory, and the necessity towards establishing a new science – entreprenology, would position entrepreneurship as a distinctive domain of study. Entrepreneurship as embodied in different paradigms is investigated, and due to the eclectic nature of the subject matter, meta-triangulation is recommended for studying this multifaceted phenomenon. Next, five criteria are stipulated against which to examine if a field may be considered an established discipline; these are scrutinised against current developments in the field. Moving to more descriptive content, the extent of participation in entrepreneurship studies is explored, and several different institutional formats, countries, and various forms of entrepreneurship programmes are scrutinised. The state-of affairs in entrepreneurship offerings at South Africa Higher Institutions are summarised. Based on empirical evidence, entrepreneurship offerings come in various shapes and forms, and results from several multinational surveys are interpreted in terms of syllabi and pedagogies utilised. Moreover, in order to illuminate the distinctiveness of this emerging discipline, sharp distinctions are raised between entrepreneurship and generic management and small business management. Finally, an African perspective is provided where it is intimated that current entrepreneurship studies in Africa are predominantly oriented towards preparing individuals for employment rather than for entrepreneurship.

This chapter aims to explore the role of entrepreneurship in the field of development economics. This is done in a twofold manner. First, the chapter asks how the concept of entrepreneurship relates to the study field of development economics. Second, the relationship between entrepreneurial activity and economic development is explored by providing a short overview of how entrepreneurship differs between advanced and developing economies, and by discussing a number of theoretical considerations in formalising the role of the entrepreneur in the economic development process.

The discussion of social entrepreneurship serves the broader purpose of illuminating how entrepreneurship is significant in dealing with social issues. In the international arena, due to a surge in non-profit organisations, social entrepreneurship has been on the rise in recent decades, although as an academic enquiry it is still emerging. Only recently has social entrepreneurship begun to coalesce into a distinct discipline, which is manifested through various dedicated institutions. Social ills have been identified as drivers of social entrepreneurship, and non-profit organisations are seen as a growing source of solutions to issues that currently plague society. The concept of social entrepreneurship is interrogated by comparing several definitions, and the different elements in these definitions are scrutinised – particularly the distinction between commercial and social entrepreneurship. Based on collective propositions on social entrepreneurship, the process is described as a catalyst for social change which varies according the socioeconomic and cultural environments. Venture philanthropy is represented as a paradigm shift from the notion that voluntary sector organisations merely receive funds from charitable donors, to the notion of earned investment through a collaborative relationship. Social venture franchising is introduced and different lessons are drawn from successful social entrepreneurship practices. Like business entrepreneurs, social entrepreneurs initiate and implement innovative programmes, and even though they are differently motivated, the challenges they face during start-ups are similar to those faced by business entrepreneurs. Subsequently, the different types of competencies used by successful entrepreneurs are elaborated upon. The chapter ends by investigating the different types of challenges that social entrepreneurs face.

Today, organisations are facing more dynamic environments than in the past. Change is constant, which results in organisations facing difficult challenges that put pressure on profitability. To survive in the current environment, organisations have to be flexible and respond to changes in the environment by adopting certain business practices that are conducive to achieving and sustaining successful businesses. An entrepreneurial organisation (EO) is an entity that practises corporate entrepreneurship. Corporate entrepreneurship (CE) is an entrepreneurial mindset and behaviour of an organisation. An organisation can be termed entrepreneurial if it consistently practises corporate entrepreneurship.

As the preceding chapters have demonstrated, entrepreneurship in its many forms offers the promise of empowering individuals and organisations, and of improving societies and nations in a variety of ways. This chapter seeks to clarify the cultural antecedents of venture creation and reviews important foundations for those encouraging more entrepreneurship, within a cultural context. This chapter does not attempt an encyclopedic review of culture, but rather identifies findings that bestow new awareness to entrepreneurship research in this regard.