Hidden Geographies

After several decades of rather sporadic use in the scientific literature, the concept of hidden geographies is still usually based on provisional definitions that support the specific geographical hiddenness of the topic presented in a publication. This chapter focuses on hidden geographies, with the aim of providing a usable, not necessarily definitive understanding and definition of the concept. After a conceptual-semantic view at hidden geographies, the meanings of the concept and the term are presented, based on the analysis of literature, which provides a colourful variety of connotations and names of the concept in practise. In the discussion, some of the contexts underlying the concept under study are highlighted, as well as questions regarding its understanding and use, such as understanding the blurred line between hidden and revealed geography, and the roles of geography and geoinformatics in revealing or hiding geographies. Finally, a general definition and some specific definitions are proposed, linked to four layers of understanding of the concept: undiscovered, uncognised, unpublished and deliberately hidden geographies.

Modern science has already reached such a high level that technological solutions in practice expand the limits of the capabilities of human intelligence and move forward in the creation of artificial intelligence (AI). The topic of automated decision-making in navigation is constantly being included in global research and is funded by several state and commercial institutions. Investigating the ability of the brain to orient spatially is very important because, in the future, AI will require not only the usage of typical template solutions for orientation, but also the ability to handle fuzzy spatial information. Hidden geographic objects can be defined as those objects that are not explicitly recognized, but at the same time, they are perceived as sensory stimuli and actively processed and integrated into the brain. Based on only part of an incomplete object, the brain itself is able to think of its continuation, and this helps in finding the way and in remembering the way. However, people increasingly cognize and represent the Earth through devices, while humanity is losing the innate ability to perceive the environment, which is present in the animal world. Animals have a multicomponent sensory contact with natural elements, they form their own mental maps based on orientation by the Sun, by stars, by the surrounding landscape, i.e. by the same natural landmarks that people followed in ancient times. Even the ancient Mayans and Aztecs were more able to perceive spatial knowledge on different scales than many modern users of new electronic devices. Presently it is important to understand how the mind perceives, draws and creates a picture of the surrounding space in memory. Using cognitive descriptions in geography, it will be possible to integrate algorithms of innate spatial perception with numerous technological applications, expanding the use of AI for complex spatial tasks.

The article discusses the spatial symbols and the process of symbolization. The symbolization process is a process of transformation, where hidden elements become significant, recognizable and usable in some particular ways. Symbolization is a process of establishing a symbolic link between an objective matter (place, object or/and space) and the subjective nature of human perception of material things. The article has two main parts. In the first part, there is a brief presentation of the theoretical premises on the appearance of the symbolic space and about the symbolization process. Symbolic space is known in geography, indirectly even quite often used, but theoretically and empirically fairly rarely seen. Within the national space, there is at least an indicative hierarchy of spatial symbols. The hierarchy is a logical reflection of the importance of the relationship between spatial elements, and at the same time, the reflection of the spatial values ​​of the society. All spatial-relevant identities need frameworks and reasons for identifying or identifying with certain points, zones or objects. At the same time, they are managed: most important spatial symbols are, as a rule, well-visited. The second part deals with spatial symbols in Slovenia and is based on some empirical research. They show their appearance, characteristics of the site and estimate their influence.

The reconstruction of the landscapes of the past, a classical theme of historical geography, is a typical case of concealed geography, intrinsically hidden from the view of the contemporary scholar. His work meets with increasing difficulties as time passes, considering the inevitable transformations that have occurred in the territory under study. The Holy Land, i.e. the land where the biblical events took place, is a typical example of this. Due to the scarcity of traditional geographical, cartographic and bibliographical sources, it is nowadays to archaeological research that we owe the most significant contributions, although nothing will ever replace coeval testimonials. This work studies the possibility of resorting to mystical literature as a source of knowledge. It is a grey area comprised between fiction and popular piety. After framing the question in the two main structures of religion and agnosticism, we shall summarize the stance of the Catholic Church, concentrating on the New Testament. We shall in particular compare the written works attributed to A. K. Emmerich and M. Valtorta, which provide us with a wealth of landscape descriptions.

Of all natural or physical elements of a landscape, soils are the most hidden ones. Topography, waters and living world are well visible, obvious and considered as the most important and attractive landscape features. While soils beneath our feet on the other hand are hidden from our sight and furthermore are even considered boring. All soil properties, processes and links to other elements are too often neglected, do not get a proper attention and due to ignorance, are treated poorly. Soil sequence or catena is a concept that deals with these hidden interlinks and reveals new information about landscape and soils. The study area comprises the eastern foot slopes of the Polhograjsko hills, on the western edge of the Ljubljana basin. Both entities are the part of the Pre-Alpine region, which extends south of the Alps, across the entire country. The lower parts of the Polhograjsko hills slopes consist of the Carboniferous and Permian, hard, siliceous clay and sandstones. On top of this, thick layers of hard and compact Triassic limestone and dolomites represent the upper part of slopes and summits. Soil genesis in the foot of the Polhograjsko hills and its slopes show a modified soil sequence (pedosequences), already described by Stritar in 1991. He states this is the most important soil sequence in Slovenia because it appears in all-natural regions (high and low mountains and hills and especially in karstic areas). The developing stages of soil on hard carbonate rocks show considerable regularity in appearance (limestones and dolomites of different periods) throughout the regions of Slovenia. The variety of soil groups on limestones and dolomites is closely connected or conditioned by the specific geomorphology of these surfaces, which are modulated by irregularly distributed sinkholes, smaller valleys and precipitous, larger plateaus, terraces and undulating valleys. This variegated relief by itself would not be a cause for such sudden changes and variations in soil forms where it is not for the associated micro-relief of the rock. Due to the high micro-variation of geological and topographical features, a term mosaic soil spatial distribution is used.

Air pollution is difficult to detect with human senses. It is to a large extent out of sight and out of sense, while causing a burden on our economy, our health and our environment. A relevant illustration of this is the exposure to air pollution during commutes. The air pollution commuters are exposed to remains to a considerable extent a hidden geography, with, for example, a lack of available reliable information regarding the on-the-road concentrations of several air pollutants. This research aims to unravel, to the best possible extent, spatio-temporal air pollution patterns (active) commuters are exposed to. Cyclists and pedestrians can be unaware that they commute in polluted air. They often travel close to motorised traffic, resulting in high exposure to several air pollutants, which have elevated levels on the road due to vehicular emissions. Significantly higher concentrations of particulate matter (<2.5 µm), black carbon and nitrogen dioxide were found on roads with high-traffic intensities than on roads with less traffic, cycling highways or separated cycle lanes. The amplitude of the concentration differences between routes depends on both temporal factors, such as the season, the day of the week, or the time of day, and spatial factors, such as the traffic’s density, the footpath or cycle lane’s location, the architectural makeup (e.g. street canyons) and the meteorological conditions. Using high-resolution air pollution models, it is possible to distinguish between routes of higher and lower air pollution concentrations, allowing active road users to choose an alternative route to lower their air pollution exposure. However, on-the-road concentrations displayed by the Belgian ATMO-Street model are often considerably underestimated, especially for routes with high levels of motorised traffic. In general, for air pollution models to distinguish between routes, a minimum spatial-model resolution of 10 m² including street configuration effects (e.g. street canyons) is desired. For temporal resolution, static seasonal-hourly raster model data, calculated from a previous year’s hourly data, are sufficient to make a scientifically sound distinction between alternative routes regarding exposure to air pollution. Those tools are a great help in uncovering the spatio-temporal pollution patterns (active) commuters are exposed to and also provide relevant insights to reduce the health and economic burden of air pollution, which is unseen to a large extent and of which most people are not aware. Additional research using microscale measurement setups to further unravel gradients in air pollutant concentrations and further reveal reliable estimates of on-the-road concentrations of those pollutants is recommended.

The problem of waste disposal in the Kornati archipelago is clearly an issue of hidden geography since it is often neglected in the scientific literature and media alike. This paper summarises a realised joint preparation of the methodology for the inventory of solid waste in the coastal zone. The methodology was used and tested for the inventory of solid waste in Kornati National Park which encompasses a large part of the Kornati archipelago located in the central part of the Croatian Adriatic coast. Inventory of solid waste is the first and crucial step in the management of this often-overlooked issue. Approximately two-thirds of the land and the waters of the Kornati archipelago (217 km²) in Central Dalmatia were proclaimed as a national park in 1980. It is a place of exceptional natural values, cultural heritage and occasional population, which is at the same time very attractive for visitors. The purpose of the National Park’s management plan for the area was to maintain high aesthetics of the landscape and the extremely rich marine ecosystem. The observed natural conditions (winds and currents) and socio-economic features (environmental pressures during the peak tourist season) are causing specific problems within the park in terms of waste pollution. Human activities and their influence seem to be concentrated in the coastal zone: (a) areas with (occasional) settlements and infrastructure intended for the predominant nautical tourism, and (b) uninhabited areas mostly with bays and coves accessible only from the sea. Data show different origins of the waste according to the country of their production: Croatia, Turkey, Albania, Poland, Italy, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Germany, France, Greece, Hungary and North Macedonia with prevailing household plastic waste and solid wood waste. Evidently, waste has not stopped accumulating there.

This study discusses the potential for the development of astronomical tourism in Kumano City. An analysis is conducted not only of tourism development efforts undertaken by the local government and the tourist association, but also of astronomy-related tourist behaviors and tourists’ opinions about stargazing activities. Astronomical tourism in Kumano City is regarded as the creation of new tourism consumption opportunities, given the lack of existing night tourist attractions. However, it is necessary to differentiate the contents of stargazing activities from other areas to attract tourists because Kumano City has not been recognized as a popular astronomy-related destination yet. Overall, astronomical tourism tends to focus strongly on features of educational tourism, such as explanations of constellations by specialists. On the other hand, tourists who are interested in astronomy in Kumano City are attracted by leisure or comfort in the context of stargazing activities. Therefore, to promote astronomical tourism, it is necessary to not only improve human resource development, by providing interpreters for stargazing, but also create warm spaces and environments where one can comfortably watch the starry sky in Kumano City and engage in academic activities. Isono (The Tourism Studies 31:5–18, 2019) explains that such lighthearted stargazing products can produce child-friendly opportunities to enjoy peaceful night-time activities, even though the starry sky itself is unlikely to be a major tourist attraction. Thus, it is necessary to create stargazing programs related to the strengths of Kumano City such as the scenic natural landscape or warm winter climate.

This chapter discusses controversies that surrounded the construction of drainage tunnels beneath the lead mining landscape of Halkyn Mountain in North East Wales in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Lead mining had a dramatic effect on the surficial and interior environments of the region, shaped social relations, and created distinct communities. As miners probed deeper to reach new veins, water levels rose in shafts and passages. Mine owners and syndicates embarked on drainage schemes. Mining and tunnelling sculpted the underlands of North East Wales, but provoked debates about power and privilege, the occupation and ownership of the subterranean, the nature of strata, and concerns over the flow, disruption and contamination of underground watercourses and local water supplies. Drawing on archival material, the chapter discusses the visualisation of Halkyn Mountain’s hidden geographies, particularly through debates over the construction of the Milwr Tunnel. A socio-technical assemblage, the Milwr Tunnel was subject to a boosterism about “splendid” and “promising” discoveries of riches by unwatering abandoned mines and probing further underground to extract ore from new lodes. Engineers and miners were celebrated as pioneers and adventurers in revealing and shaping hidden worlds and unlocking mineral wealth, allowing, in the process, companies to map and control the subterranean. Above ground, there were local anxieties over the spread of mine shafts below and tunnels were criticised as monopoly schemes. Tunnels and underground channels raised questions over purpose, design and social and environmental impacts, and demands were placed on drainage companies to meet local social and economic obligations. The formations, structures, materialities and aesthetics of the underground, geological maps, and the flow of carboniferous limestone water, were essential to testimony presented at parliamentary hearings that visualised the shape and rupture of subterranean depths.

Over time, landscape elements are being transformed by natural, cultural and socio-political processes. There are occasions when important geographic events and objects become hidden, or traces of their existence become extinct. Often, the history of the landscape is hidden and can be revived based on historical sources, folk narratives and physical remains. The present paper deals with the sixteenth-century road network and import–export of goods in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region. The Ottoman census materials known as the Great Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet is the primary source of the research. In the Samtskhe-Javakheti region (Georgia), in the study period, the structure and function of the road network was different from today. Locally produced exports, as well as roads connecting settlements in each historic administrative unit, are described in the paper. The chapter tells about difficulties associated with travel, as well as the flows and main directions of imported and exported goods and the connection centres. The study shows the state of the mediaeval road network and trade patterns in this section of the South Caucasus Corridor.

A boundary stone, boundary marker, border marker or border stone is a robust physical marker that identifies a land boundary, especially a change in the direction of a boundary. Usually, it is a stone. Natural stone was used for boundary stones, which were later made of concrete or other materials. They were usually placed in a particularly visible spot. Many boundary stones feature information, such as an abbreviation identifying the holder of the border and a date. Boundary stones separating countries usually include abbreviations of countries they are separating, as well as the date when the border was delineated. We focused on boundary stones in the territory of modern-day Slovenia, which in the Habsburg Monarchy, before World War I, divided the Duchy of Styria and the Kingdom of Hungary and, in the interwar period, the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. These boundary stones no longer serve their original purpose; however, as markers of the past, they are historical witnesses. They represent an administrative legacy that is today mostly hidden in the cognitive perception of these boundaries.

The Carthusian monks spend their extraordinary existence in an atmosphere of great contemplative silence and total hiding, protected by an extremely rigid form of enclosure, so their monasteries are also called simply deserts. The Carthusian space constantly proposes a functional organization of the environments strictly dependent on the monks’ peculiar kind of life. This includes spaces reserved for fathers, spaces dedicated to the times of community life and, finally, spaces reserved for brothers. This is specified in the Statutes of their Order, although from time to time it has been harmoniously adapted in creative terms to the morphology of the different sites. Undoubtedly the Carthusian monasteries constitute a paradigmatic example of hidden geographies. They can however be discovered to some extent through an accurate reconnaissance of the precious testimonies—more or less well preserved and valorized from a cultural point of view—that these monks have left in the places where they have lived in the past. Such testimonies can also be found in the territories of the Alpine-Adriatic region, i.e., within the current borders of Slovenia and Austria.

This chapter aims to epitomize some of the hidden dimensions of the cities, which in fact is a suggestion of the different processes required for their scientific analysis. The starting point is the various experiences in urban research, mainly in the case of Barcelona. From there, the path continues to the presentation of a set of different and complex variables, isolated due to the analysis’ requirements but nevertheless considering relevant relationships between them. Firstly, the urban forms and planning are discussed. Secondly, all environmental aspects; important underground city; structures of land property; dynamics of the urban economy; domestic spaces and everyday life; urban segregation, both social and ethnical; urban marginal life; and political power are discussed. Finally, as a conclusive reflection, the debate on the limits of the cities is presented.

Critical regionalism can be seen as an approach to architecture that tries to stand up for places culture and identifies the identity of a place where modern architecture has failed to, by using the building’s geographical context and reference of local characteristics. This idea was initiated by Lewis Mumford and then by Frampton, Tzonis, and Lefaivre. Frampton in his essay argues that it is critical to adopt universal values of modernism, taking into account the geographical context of the building. He refers directly to the climate, light, topography, and local tectonic form, which should be understood as historical and geographical conditions of the construction industry. This study discusses the critical regionalism theory and its geographical expressions in architecture. The paper opens with a theoretical review, presenting a criticism of modernism and the role of geographical factors as a hidden antidote to rescue modern architecture. Thus, geography gives us an incredible lens through which to see the architecture and their elements. These statements raise the question of what is architecture pertaining to geography. What can still be used to identify the originality of a place or region when globalization and cultural homogenizing are ever-growing and, in many cases, have ceased to exist? Perhaps the most powerful story here is the narrative of how geographical aspects make it possible to trigger critical regionalism as a powerful paradigm in contemporary architecture.

The spread of urban areas throughout the country, as well as the sprawl processes that it involves, have been a recurring theme in the growth of most Spanish cities over the last few decades. These phenomena have been studied extensively from various perspectives and disciplines, though this has generally been carried out without a detailed analysis of the origins of the settlements that comprise them. It is this aspect, in this case, based on its connection to the planned/unplanned origin of new urban developments connected to this city growth model that can become a key element for isolating the various related processes and helping us to understand their different dimensions. In certain cases, the surface area of the urban developments that arise without planning is so large that they manage to compete in significance with the established city. This phenomenon has been called the formation of the hidden city. The main aim of this study is to describe and analyse the problem of the illegal urban developments that have been carried out in Spain since the 1960s and 1970s. This will be carried out considering that it is connected to urban sprawl and suburbanisation processes that characterised the growth of cities in this spatial context during that time period. Secondly, we will show the effects of this illegal urban development on the territorial structures of the municipality of Cordoba, one of the most affected by this type of process.

The Roma represent the second-largest ethnic minority in Bulgaria and the most dynamic population group in terms of population growth. Typically, they live in segregated neighbourhoods in cities or smaller settlements. The expansion of these Roma neighbourhoods both horizontally and vertically (in height) is difficult to trace, considering that the vast majority of the buildings are illegal and in most cases not depicted on cadastral maps and urban plans, or—due to the rapid illegal construction—the existing plans do not represent the real situation. These neighbourhoods remain invisible to the general public, as they are excluded from their minds as possible places of visiting, let alone habitation, and in their essence represent a type of unused spaces. This paper presents the result of a study aiming to make an assessment of the residential quality in the Roma neighbourhood of Harman Mahala, located in the second-largest Bulgarian city—Plovdiv. The residential quality has been assessed in both objective and subjective aspects, based on urban planning documents and legislation, field survey among the residents, and data collected with the use of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Spatial data has been combined with field studies, quantitative and qualitative methods of gathering information, which complement both the objective and subjective assessments of the residential environment (how the residents of the neighbourhood perceive the city, their neighbourhood, and their homes). The study proposes a methodology for analyzing the internal structure of Roma neighbourhoods by using data obtained from aerial photography, which compensates for the lack of information on the current state of the housing stock. The terrain has been captured from a height of 90–120 m using precise sensing instruments, recording images in the visible spectrum. Through the subsequent processing of the obtained image data and through the application of appropriate methods and algorithms, detailed maps of the actual status of the surveyed buildings—outline, height, density, surface area, etc.—have been created, which also depict the changes that took place over time. Basic spatial indicators, such as building density coefficient and green space percentage, as well as their dynamics over the period 2016–2019 have been calculated. The results of the study indicate that while the objective assessment of the studied neighbourhood is relatively low, the subjective assessment of the residents is actually high, due to a strong sense of place and sense of security which the segregated community provides.

This paper underlines that ageing in rural areas is a very complex and multilevel interdependent process which is based on networks—the later is being created by interrelations among a mentally constructed (individual perception of person aged 65+), the formalized (involvement of different relevant stakeholders) and the material (rural areas) environments. We argue that these networks are crucial for the creation of age-friendly rural areas. However, the networks—their establishment, the functioning, the form—are less frequent in research on ageing in rural areas. Therefore, we focus on the hidden geographies of these networks: where are the networks placed, who is included, what kind of relationships is performed, how they are addressing the actual needs and expectations of ageing populations in rural areas. For the further analysis of the significance of these networks, a wide longitudinal research is needed. The hidden needs and expectations, hidden information, hidden knowledge, hidden skills, hidden networks of actors are all creating the contemporary landscape of ageing that is not a win–win situation for ageing in rural areas. We would like to underline that ageing in rural areas becomes friendlier when these networks become visible and operational—since this would open up the field for the creation of new job opportunities in rural areas, also for the fine-tuning of existing and the future development of essential social and economic infrastructure, which is relevant for age-friendly rural communities. Re-organization of public care for elderly on national as well as on the local level is expected, new forms of health and social services need to be developed aiming at more efficiency and financial sustainability.

Fertility rates in Serbia have been at a low level over several decades. They are also marked by spatial heterogeneity, determined by the effects of the geographical and socio-economic characteristics of the place. This means that at each particular location, a set of determinants are responsible for the volume of reproductive processes. This paper uses geographically weighted regression to study the spatial variation of the relationships between fertility rates, on the one hand, and demographic and socio-economic characteristic of the population (livelihood income, marital status, economic activity, and education), on the other hand, at the local and global levels, and to demonstrate the advantages of the local model in hidden contents’ detection. Our results suggest that the relationships between the determinants and fertility rates are not constant but vary across space and that there is a difference in terms of direction and strength. These variations could not be detected using a global model, and in this sense, they remained hidden. On the other hand, the specific numerical and cartographically presented results of the local model have indicated, in a simple and sophisticated way, the locations of interest regarding fertility issues, creating a platform for numerous birth incitement strategies, as a leading population problem in many European countries.

Social developments in Albania have been closely linked to natural, economic, political, and historical factors due to the impact they have on the free movement of the population. Migratory movements in Albania, mainly after the 1990s, have played an important role in the transformation of socio-geographical spaces, having a multidimensional impact in the context of transformation and development of the territory and shaping new social characteristics of the population. Specifically, these transformations are evident in the territorial space of Vora Municipality, which can be identified as a typical case of territorial transformations and social changes of the population, as a result of the geographical position of this municipality. Vora Municipality is located between Tirana and Durrës, the two largest Albanian cities and has always served as a prime location for the most important businesses and people from different regions of our country, thus creating the sponge effect. The main aims of the paper are to identify and analyze the factors that have influenced the social transformation of this space, analyze the social effects in the population, identify new territorial transformations, and undertake the study of the geographical distribution of social conflicts. This study reveals the new social features of the population and the trends of these territories.

Digitalisation and automatisation have been changing the economy since the digital revolution from 1969. Characteristic of the ongoing fourth industrial revolution are cyber-physical systems which communicate with one another. Every step of the manufacturing process is aimed to be interconnected with the ‘Factories of the Future’. Theoretical characteristics and initiatives will be presented in the first part of this paper, considering the working force and sustainability as well. In the second part of the paper, the Slovenian companies’ characteristics regarding digitalisation and (potential) use of high-performance computing in the automotive and electronic sector will be presented, based on the data gathered by questionnaires. The results show that the Slovenian economy is in the initial phase of new hidden technological development with some successful implementations.

The borders between the member states of the European Union do not represent an obstacle when travelling with personal vehicles, especially within the Schengen Area. Sadly, this does not apply to public passenger transport. The chapter presents cross-border public transport in the case of Slovenia, as it represents an ideal laboratory for the studying of changes in cross-border traffic flows. In the last three decades, due to political changes, the status and permeability of borders have changed several times. We analysed (1) the development of cross-border public transport in Slovenia before it gained independence in 1991, (2) the period of its accession to the European Union in 2004, and (3) the period when it was already a member of the European Union 2004–2019. The case of cross-border mobility between Austria and Slovenia in Carinthia was examined in more detail. Our results show that for a long-term operation of cross-border public transport an appropriate legal basis is crucial. This only opens the possibility of making the quality of cross-border public transport comparable to the quality of public transport within the country.

In this chapter, we study the impact that the visible degradation of a public square has had on the social behaviour and responses of the residents and local actors in terms of place attachment and participation. The main objective is to identify the factors that generated the negative image associated by residents themselves with the neighbourhood, the elements that determined the degradation and marginalization of the neighbourhood, and the consequences of these processes for the people’s behaviour. For this purpose, we collected data through surveys from residents and interviews with professionals on Traian Square, a public space, and the core element of the Fabric neighbourhood in Timișoara, Romania. This is a square with a long tradition and history in Timișoara, one of the symbolic squares of the city, which was marked by a process of transformation that led to a degraded place, associated in the collective imagery with a place of fear, mysterious and enigmatic. Without clear stages of the evolution of the square and its buildings, it is proven that the hidden elements are interconnected and can be revealed by a detailed analysis. The results indicate that the main factor that contributed to the marginalization of the square was represented by the local authorities, which allowed its physical and social degradation by not investing in improvements and allowing people with social problems to settle there. Facing this situation, many residents considered the option of moving to other neighbourhoods or reduced the degree of participation in the neighbourhood’s life. These consequences can, in a bad scenario, lead to segregation, which should be avoided with adequate strategies.

Based on the qualitative methodology, the content analysis of 24 foreign solo female travellers’ online blog narratives, this paper aims to understand foreign solo female travellers’ perceptions of risk and safety in a less conservative Muslim destination, Turkey. The research result revealed that in terms of risk and safety, pre-travel Turkey was perceived as a dangerous or unsafe and uncertain destination by these travellers. However, later, following personal experience, nearly all women travellers agreed that it is a safe country for travelling alone. Additionally, they described their trip as a favourite, great, memorable, comforting, heart-opening experience and recommended it to potential solo travellers. Besides, Turkey’s destination image was constructed positively by the travellers’ post experiences. For them, the country was mostly represented by hospitable and friendly people, plentiful cultural and historical attractions, beautiful landscapes and natural attractions, good tourism infrastructure and security. On the other hand, some foreign solo female travellers experienced gender risk, including advances from men or unwanted attention and verbal harassment. To negotiate it, they developed various strategies such as dressing modestly, avoiding hanging out late at night, using common sense, ignoring or being rude to men, avoiding eye contact with men, using fake wedding ring.

The aim of this study is to discuss selected hidden geographical contexts of a visible post-war landscape and their influence on explaining what is perceived in the landscape. Hidden geographies refer to the spatial location/distribution of phenomena in the landscape that remain hidden from the observer until they are revealed to him by his cognition. In order to simulate such a perspective in the discussions as well as in the interpretation of examples of revealing hidden geographies, a narrative/mental simulation method is used. The process of constructing explanations for the visually perceived landscape is demonstrated using a model from constructivist psychology, in which prior knowledge, learned rules, and current experiences/learning are confronted with perceived reality. The examples of revealing hidden geographies are observed in a selected area in Bosnia and Herzegovina and shed light on topics such as depopulation, ethnic structure, war destruction, post-war renewal and return of displaced people, and interethnic tensions. Multiple sources (of varying reliability) and methods were used to present these examples, ranging from the collection and interpretation of statistical data, maps, publications, personal online stories, even ethnically biased media news or personal blogs from the internet, to the authors’ own field observations and interviews with locals. The discussions and the examples of hidden geographies provide a range of evidence that post-war landscapes are full of hidden contexts which affect the observer’s explanation of his visual perception of the landscape, as much as they influence the lives of people inhabiting it, and their natural environment.