3. International Conferences on Sustainable Development and Climate from Rio de Janeiro to Paris

As strongly denounced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in the Summary for Policy Makers of the fifth report, published in October 2013.

Refrigerant gases.

It should be mentioned that on this occasion was held the fist meeting of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), better known as Agenda 21, which is the programme of action by the international community (states, governments, NGOs, private sector) in the area of environment and development for the twenty-first century. It is a complex document which starts from the premise that human societies cannot continue to increase the economic gap between countries and between the classes of the population within them, increasing poverty, hunger, disease and illiteracy and causing the continuing deterioration of the ecosystems that are responsible for the maintenance of life on the planet. The Agenda 21 document is divided into four thematic sections that are detailed in the respective chapters: (1) social and economic areas: poverty, health, environment, demographics, production, etc. (2) Conservation and management of resources: atmosphere, forests, deserts, mountains, water, chemicals, waste, etc. (3) Strengthening the role of the most significant groups: women, youth, NGOs, ethnic groups, farmers, trade unions. (4) Methods of implementation: finances and institutions. To achieve these objectives, after the Rio Conference, several initiatives and projects were launched, and various governments outlined plans for the sustainable development of their countries, based on the specific existent conditions and environmental and social issues. Concerning the status of implementation of the commitments of Agenda 21 at a global level the UN Conference, ‘Rio + 10’ was held in August 2002 in Johannesburg (South Africa), on sustainable development, whose resolutions were signed by the governments of 183 countries. Among these documents is the ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’, which commits governments to promote, through coordination with all the actors of the territory, an action plan for improving the quality of life and social and economic development in harmony with the environment. It was also hoped that all countries would undertake the consultative process with their populations and seek consensus on a Local Agenda 21 by 1996: ‘Every local authority has to open a dialogue with its citizens, with associations and with private companies and adopt a Local Agenda 21. Through consultation and consensus building, local authorities can learn from the local community and businesses and can acquire the information necessary for the formulation of the best strategies. The consultation process can raise the awareness of families on issues of sustainable development. The programs, policies and laws passed by the local administration could be evaluated and amended on the basis of the new plans thus adopted. These strategies could also be used to support the proposals and to access local, regional, national and international funding’ (article 28 of Agenda 21).

The Protocol commits the industrialized countries and those with economies in transition (Eastern European countries) to reduce (5 % in the period 2008–2012) GHG emissions capable of altering the natural greenhouse effect. Greenhouse gases covered by the Protocol are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride. Unfortunately, not all states have acceded to the Protocol: the USA, responsible for 30 % of the total emissions from developed countries, signed but then refused to ratify the Treaty. For newly industrialized countries, the Protocol does not provide for any reduction target. China, India and other developing countries have been exempted from obligations because they are not considered among the ‘historical’ major emitters of greenhouse gases (i.e. those that remain in the atmosphere for about a century and which are the cause of climate change). The non-member countries are responsible for 40 % of global emissions of greenhouse gases.

Joint Implementation (JI): If two industrialised countries that have signed a commitment to do so produce a plan to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the investing country is accredited the emission rights of the host country. The investing country may then produce a larger quantity of greenhouse gases, which will be equivalent to the reduction obtained in the host country.

Unlike JI projects, in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects, partners are developing countries that have not signed PSA reduction commitments. In this case, therefore, emissions rights are not transferred but created. The investing country may emit greater amounts of greenhouse gases without the host country having to reduce its total emissions.

Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC): contributions to the global reduction of greenhouse gases that the nations intended to give on a voluntary basis by means of ‘clear and transparent plans’.