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2020 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

Maritime Transport, the WTO, and Regional Trade Agreements: Too Many Cooks?

Author : Lijun Zhao

Published in: Coherence and Divergence in Services Trade Law

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Shipping is the most international of all industries, as well as being one of the oldest—and it is also one of the most complicated. This chapter examines, through historical, legal and economic lenses, whether and how RTAs (and PTAs) may facilitate international trade and enhance liberalisation of maritime transport service along with the GATS under the WTO framework. The relationship between the WTO and maritime transport regime can be traced back to the GATS and related maritime transport service negotiations. Even though shipping has been on the negotiating agenda since the 1980s, the GATS related negotiations on this sector turned out extremely frustrating. After exploring the status quo of the maritime transport services and their liberalisation under the GATS and RTAs, this chapter argues that the future liberalisation of maritime transport sector relies on efforts from both the WTO and RTAs. From an economic point of view, today’s trade relies on shipping to carry the goods around the world, because the trade is globalised, shipping needs such a global, multilateral framework which the WTO empowers. At the same time, shipping also needs regional, bilateral and local forums—RTAs (including PTAs)—through which Members share a high degree of commonality.

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previous chapter “Parallel Convergences” in Free Trade Agreements on Financial Services: Select Issues
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Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Footnotes
1
UNCTAD (2018), Review of Maritime Transport, pp. 1–15. WTO (2001), Doc. S/CSS/W/59.
 
2
UNCTAD (2018), Review of Maritime Transport, pp. 1–15.
 
3
WTO (2001), Doc. S/CSS/W/59.
 
4
E.g. WTO I-TIP databases.
 
5
See details in Sect. 6.1.
 
6
Sturley (1991), p. 3.
 
7
Sturley (1991), pp. 3–15.
 
9
Parameswaran (2010) and Zhao (2014, 2015).
 
11
ASEAN – China; Australia – Chile; Canada – Chile; Canada – Colombia; Canada – Honduras; Canada – Panama; Canada – Peru; Chile – China; Chile – Colombia; Chile – Costa Rica (Chile – Central America); Chile – El Salvador (Chile – Central America); Chile – Guatemala (Chile – Central America); Chile – Honduras (Chile – Central America); Chile – Japan; Chile – Mexico; Chile – Nicaragua (Chile – Central America); China – Costa Rica; China – New Zealand; China – Rep. of Korea; China – Singapore; Colombia – Mexico; Colombia – Northern Triangle (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras); Costa Rica – Peru; Costa Rica – Singapore; Dominican Republic – Central America – United States Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR); East African Community (EAC); EFTA – Chile; EFTA – Colombia; EFTA – Hong Kong, China; EFTA – Korea, Republic of; EFTA – Singapore; EFTA – Ukraine; El Salvador- Honduras – Chinese Taipei; Guatemala – the Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu; Hong Kong, China – Chile; Hong Kong, China – New Zealand; Iceland – China; India – Japan; India – Malaysia; India – Singapore; Japan – Australia; Japan – Mexico; Japan – Mongolia; Japan – Peru; Japan – Philippines; Japan – Switzerland; Jordan – Singapore; Korea, Republic of – Australia; Korea, Republic of – Chile; Korea, Republic of – Singapore; Korea, Republic of – US; Korea, Republic of – Viet Nam; Mexico – Central America; New Zealand – Chinese Taipei; New Zealand – Malaysia; Nicaragua and the Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu; North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); Pakistan – China; Panama – Chile; Panama – Costa Rica (Panama – Central America); Panama – El Salvador (Panama – Central America); Panama – Guatemala (Panama – Central America); Panama – Honduras (Panama – Central America); Panama – Peru; Panama – Singapore; Panama and the Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu; Peru – Chile; Peru – China; Peru – Korea, Republic of; Peru – Mexico; Peru – Singapore; Singapore – Australia; Singapore – Chinese Taipei; Switzerland – China; Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership; Ukraine – Montenegro; US – Australia; US – Bahrain; US – Chile; US – Colombia; US – Jordan; US – Morocco; US – Oman; US – Panama; US – Peru; US – Singapore.
 
12
A full list of covered RTAs under I-TIP database (up to September 2016) can be found at http://​i-tip.​wto.​org/​services/​Services_​RTAs_​covered.​pdf.
 
14
See details on flagging out and open registry in Sect. 6.2.3.
 
17
See Sect. 4.3.
 
18
WTO (1996a). Doc.S/NGMTS/13, para 2.
 
19
WTO (1994). Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization.
 
20
E.g. Zhao (2015); WTO (1996b), p. 1, para 1.
 
21
GATS Article XXIX.
 
22
World Bank (2019), Service Trade Restrictiveness Index Database http://​iresearch.​worldbank.​org/​servicetrade/​default.​htm#.
 
23
Degenhardt and Day (1985), p. 41. Mukherjee et al. (2013).
 
24
See GATS Article II.
 
25
Zhao (2015), pp. 60–118.
 
26
Consolidated GATS Schedules of Commitments and MFN exemptions (by country and sector) can be viewed and downloaded at Services Database http://​i-tip.​wto.​org/​services/​Search.​aspx.
 
28
GATT (1001), Classification List.
 
29
I-Tip database (2019).
 
30
See details in Sect. 5.
 
31
Zhao (2014), pp. 172–227.
 
32
See details in Sect. 4.4.
 
33
See details in Sects. 5.3–5.6. This categorising has been used by the WTO/GATT negotiations since the 1980s, see WTO (2013) doc. JOB/SERV/137.
 
34
List created by the current author. Source: Stopford (2009), p. 49.
 
35
Zhao (2014), pp. 172–227.
 
36
See details in Sect. 5.3.
 
37
See details in Sect. 6.2.3.
 
38
See also Parameswaran (2010), p. 306, footnotes 1437–1440. See the four modes in GATS Article I.2.
 
39
See Sect. 4.2.
 
40
Zhao (2015), pp. 60–118.
 
41
Zhao (2015), pp. 60–118. Parameswaran (2010).
 
42
GATT Articles I and III.
 
43
GATS Article II.
 
44
See Sect. 6.1.
 
45
See Sect. 4.5.
 
46
GATS Article XVII.
 
47
Emphases by this author.
 
48
See Sect. 4.6; Mattoo et al. (2018).
 
49
WTO (2013), doc. JOB/SERV/137.
 
52
I-Tip database on GATS (2019).
 
53
Zhao (2015).
 
54
See Sect. 6.1.
 
55
I-Tip database on GATS (2019).
 
56
See Sect. 4.5.
 
57
WTO (2005), Doc.WT/MIN(05)/DEC, page C-3, paragraph 9. Türk (2008), pp. 150–162.
 
58
WTO (2005), Doc.WT/MIN(05)/DEC, Annex C, page C-3, paras. 7, 11.
 
59
Türk (2008), pp. 151–153, 155.
 
60
“Friends’ groups” focus on specific sectors, such as air transport, maritime transport, but are not strictly plurilateral negotiating groups. Türk (2008), pp. 148, 159–161, 163.
 
61
Türk (2008), pp. 148, 159–160.
 
62
Türk (2008), pp. 158–159.
 
63
Türk (2008), p. 163.
 
64
WTO and World Bank (no date), I-Tip database.
 
66
I-Tip database on RTAs (2019).
 
67
Mukherjee et al. (2013).
 
68
Petrovena (1998), pp. 1039–1040.
 
69
United States, the Harter Act 1893, 27 Stat. 445 (1983). The Harter Act is currently codified at 46 U.S.C. app. §§ 190–196 (1998).
 
70
See also Sturley (1991), pp. 11–14.
 
71
Sweeney (1993), p. 1.
 
72
See Sturley (1991), p. 4.
 
73
E.g. WTO (1995), Doc.S/NGMTS/W/2/Add.8, p. 3. WTO (1995), Doc.S/NGMTS/W/2/Add.4, p. 8. WTO (1995), Doc.S/NGMTS/W/2/Add.21, p. 3. WTO (1995), Doc. S/NGMTS/W/2/Add.12, pp. 37–43. WTO (1995), Doc.S/NGMTS/W/2/Add.15, p. 4. WTO (1995), Doc.S/NGMTS/W/2/Add.22, p. 2. WTO (1995), Doc.S/NGMTS/W/2/Add.24, p. 6. WTO (1995), Doc.S/NGMTS/W/2/Add.23, p. 5. WTO & NGMTS (1995), Doc.S/NGMTS/W/2/Add.11, pp. 3–4. WTO & NGMTS (1995), Doc.S/NGMTS/W/2/Add.19, p. 4.
 
74
I-Tip database on GATS and RTAs (2019).
 
76
I-Tip database on GATS (2019).
 
77
China’s GATS Commitment; Japan’s GATS Commitment.
 
78
I-Tip database on GATS and RTAs (2019).
 
79
Parameswaran (2010).
 
80
These issues were initiated by a circulated EC Model Schedule, which was informally circulated among delegations shortly before the conclusion of the Uruguay Round among the participants. See WTO (1995), doc.S/NGMTS/W/2, p. 7. WTO (1996c), doc.S/L/27, p. 1, para 5.
 
81
Cf. the Rotterdam Rules.
 
82
OECD & WTO (1996), Doc.DSTI/SI/MTC(96)8, pp. 3–4. See also Parameswaran (2010), pp. 343–346.
 
83
E.g. WTO (1995), Doc.S/NGMTS/W/2/.
 
84
Uruguay Round (1991), Doc.MTN.GNS/W/60.
 
85
WTO (1995). Doc.S/NGMTS/W/2/.
 
86
See Sect. 4.2.
 
87
See Sect. 4.5.
 
88
See Sect. 5 for details.
 
89
I-Tip database.
 
90
Zhao (2015).
 
91
These entities have different legal basis, governance structures, funding, mandates and scopes.
 
94
United States Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), http://​www.​un.​org/​en/​ecosoc/​.
 
96
International Maritime Organization (IMO), http://​www.​imo.​org/​Pages/​home.​aspx.
 
97
Zhao (2015).
 
98
Mukherjee et al. (2013), p. 199.
 
99
Mukherjee et al. (2013).
 
100
Levinson (2010), pp. 1, 15, 58.
 
101
Harlaftis and Theotokas (2015), pp. 8–12.
 
102
Gilmore and Black (1975), p. 16.
 
103
E.g. GATT, TRIPS Agreement, GATS, and the DSU.
 
104
See Sects. 6.2–6.3.
 
105
See Sect. 5.6.
 
106
See Sects. 4 and 5.
 
Literature
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Gilmore G, Black C (1975) The law of admiralty, 2nd edn. Foundation Press, New York
Harlaftis G, Theotokas J (2015) Chapter 1: Maritime business during the twentieth century: continuity and change. In: Grammenos C (ed) The handbook of maritime economics and business. Lloyds, London, pp 3–34
Hoffmann J, Kumar S (2010) Chapter 2: Globalisation – the maritime nexus. In: Grammenos C (ed) The handbook of maritime economics and business. Lloyds, London, pp 35–64
Levinson M (2010) The box: how the shipping container made the world smaller and the world economy bigger. Princeton University Press, Princeton
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Metadata
Title
Maritime Transport, the WTO, and Regional Trade Agreements: Too Many Cooks?
Author
Lijun Zhao
Copyright Year
2020
Book
Coherence and Divergence in Services Trade Law

Print ISBN: 978-3-030-46954-2

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-46955-9

Copyright Year: 2020

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46955-9_10