Mediating Misogyny

This chapter maps the historical relationship between gender, publics, and the Internet via a discursive and feminist analysis. Drawing from the author’s personal experience, it contextualizes online harassment within “networked publics” alongside a broader history of gender-based harassment in physical spaces. Historically, the public sphere was constructed as a patriarchal space that “belonged” to men; contestations of space continue and are extended to online publics. The harassment of women has gained increasing visibility within media, academia, popular culture, and feminism, yet early Internet research reveals that women have experienced and been concerned about harassment from the earliest days of Internet adoption. Through a review of academic scholarship and the press over the past two decades, this chapter briefly traces and analyzes the longer history of gender-based online harassment of women in order to map a trajectory of continuity and change.

Building on existing criticisms of the whiteness of cyberfeminism, Hackworth addresses the need for an intersectional reframing of online harassment scholarship to acknowledge and analyze the multilayered nature of harassment directed at women online. The chapter shows that, despite broader critiques of single-category analyses, dominant discourse about the harassment of women online recreates past problems by continuing to focus on “just gender”. Hackworth discusses the problems and limitations with this, and argues that a shift to a more intersectional approach is both essential for acknowledging diversity of experience, and vital for undertaking more in-depth analyses of online behavior.

Madden, Janoske, Winkler, and Edgar offer an exploration of the concept of mediated misogynoir, or anti-Black misogyny. Focusing on the online harassment of Black actress and comedian Leslie Jones, the chapter explores how online harassment faced by Black women is recognized and processed by online blog-based communities through a qualitative content analysis of the comment sections on eight U.S. blogs and media outlets. Commenting on the blog posts was a way for people to present themselves as different from racist and/or misogynistic commenters. Furthermore, many shared personal experiences of online abuse highlight the extent of the problem. Personal narratives can help humanize the impacts of online harassment, elucidating how these intersections are recognized and processed to improve online communities for everyone.

In this chapter Blevins makes the theoretical argument that consciousness-raising groups, informal support groups dealing with sexism, are flourishing on social media. These modern iterations can be distinguished from former groups by their focus not just on sexism, but on re-politicizing young people. Some young feminists are even embracing the label of “fourth-wave feminism.” Thus far, the effort of fourth-wave feminism is on shifting the micropolitics of the third wave to a “call out” culture online, where individuals challenge sexism and misogyny. Consciousness-raising groups should be considered a key part of this process. Instead of returning to a centrally organized social movement, these groups validate the contributions of young people and are reviving activism with the help of digital platforms.

Nieborg and Foxman discuss the event known as Gamergate, a niche misogynistic online movement primarily targeting female game developers and critics. Drawing on both discourse and content analyses of a corpus of U.S. news publications, this chapter focuses on how Gamergate events were “mainstreamed,” or normalized and subsequently cited by mainstream outlets. Analysis shows that such coverage breaks down into two phases. First, Gamergate can be considered “the beginning of the end” of an era in game culture, during which an industry, developing and publishing games by and for young men, heavily favored masculine themes and marketing approaches. Second, Gamergate signals “the end of the beginning:” a new era in which online misogyny is increasingly recognized, scrutinized, and criticized by leading news organizations.

This chapter examines the experiences of 12 women who work in U.S. sports media. The hegemonic masculinity of the sports world traditionally treats women sports journalists as outsiders who receive unequal treatment compared to male media workers. The chapter discusses strategies women sports journalists employ to combat online abuse and in-person harassment on the job. In-depth interviews with the women, who span several generations, show that: (1) they continue to face discrimination; (2) social media has enhanced their work, but has also subjected them to new forms of abuse; (3) they have developed strategies to avoid harassment by bonding with other women sports media workers; and (4) they want social media companies and employers to take actions to stop abusers. Unfortunately, the interviews show that sex discrimination and harassment are driving some younger women away from the profession, keeping sports media male-dominated. Everbach recommends that social media companies and sports media employers take steps to curb gendered threats and other aggression, which could help retain women in the industry.

Kim explores how misogynistic discourses have been constructed and reproduced in a male-dominated online community Ilbe (http://​www.​ilbe.​com/​) in South Korea. First, the chapter examines how the Ilbe community excludes female users and controls its male-dominated atmosphere. Second, by focusing on the figure of the kimchi-nyeo (girl/woman), the chapter investigates how online misogyny in South Korea develops a social discourse that reinforces gender stereotypes and justifies gender discrimination. Kim further demonstrates how hate speech toward Korean women is often accomplished through racialized comparisons with foreign, especially Japanese, women. Finally, the growth in online misogyny is analyzed in relation to a crisis in hegemonic masculinity; specifically, Kim argues that consistent production and distribution of misogynistic discourse serve to restore male bonds and hegemonic masculinity in South Korea.

Pop culture genres and fandoms are booming in popularity, aided by social media and comic con fan events. From Harry Potter to Doctor Who and Star Wars, an increasingly diverse group of fans are able to connect, collaborate, and celebrate their favorite fandoms. With an increase in participation, however, comes an increase in tensions within communities traditionally dominated by men. Given previous research and events where men within fandoms rejected the influx of female fans, the current project explores how misogyny impacts participation and enjoyment of fan culture. This study collected qualitative responses from fandom participants at a large fan event (comic con). Participants were asked about fandom activities and the presence of misogyny within their communities. Findings suggest, in line with previous research on geek culture misogyny, that women are still regarded as second-tier fans. Women are regularly viewed as neither committed nor knowledgeable enough to participate in fandom culture. Moreover, women are often objectified and harassed in social media fandom spaces. Reasons for fandom misogyny as well as improvements to inspire more tolerant and inclusive fandom communities are discussed.

Through an analysis of media discourse, Harp offers evidence of cultural misogyny during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Her analysis includes an examination of signs and T-shirts displayed by supporters of then Republican hopeful Donald Trump, the misogyny displayed by the BernieBros—a particularly vocal group of Bernie Sanders supporters—and the ways misogynistic ageism made its ways into the media conversation. Harp then spotlights the media discourse regarding a recording in which Trump is heard talking about grabbing a woman by the “pussy” and hitting on a married woman. Not only does Harp analyze the ways misogyny appeared in media covering the election, she illustrates ways feminist ideologies counter the patriarchal discourse. She uses the example to illustrate how a battle for ideology—traditional patriarchy versus feminism—occurs in public discourse.

Information communication technologies (ICTs) are changing the way people experience intimate relationships (Fox and Rainie, Pew Research Center, February 2014, “The Web at 25.” Available at http://​www.​pewinternet.​org/​2014/​02/​25/​the-web-at-25-in-the-u-s, 2014). However, research literature exploring the impact of ICTs on the abuse experiences of victim-survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV) is minimal. Using a feminist lens, which focuses on gender-based violence, this chapter examines how IPV victims-survivors face unique online problems. Studies show women experience intimate partner violence through technology, but also rely on ICT to find support outside the relationship. These findings indicate that IPV victim-survivors experiences of technology-based abuse are related to other forms of gender-based violence and, anecdotally, have been linked with stalking and homicide. Four specific forms of online abuses are described—monitoring, cyberstalking, harassment, and humiliation.

Advertisements frequently feature models that are considered “ultra-thin.” Modern developments in technology and image production have created ways to make models appear even smaller by altering images in post-production processes. The high prevalence of ads with “impossibly gorgeous” women has an impact at the societal level, by reinforcing the idea that women are primarily defined by their attractiveness to heterosexual men, and on the individual level, where exposure can have detrimental effects on women’s mental health. In response to concerns expressed by some consumers about the overuse of ultra-thin models, a few brands have launched advertising campaigns featuring “real women” who are more diverse in body shape and size. The purpose of this chapter is to explore the mixed reactions consumers have expressed toward two real women campaigns: Dove’s Campaign for Real Beauty and aerie Real by American Eagle. Consumer sentiment was investigated via comments sections of online news articles, YouTube videos, and social media platforms Reddit and Twitter. Four themes were identified encapsulating positive (e.g., featuring more diverse models is better for women and society in general), negative (e.g., the problem of ultra-thin models is fictional, made up in the minds of sensitive women, and therefore these campaigns are completely unnecessary), and skeptical (e.g., the campaigns are not diverse and inclusive enough; the motivation behind real women campaigns is profit-driven and disingenuous, making the efforts less meaningful) reactions. Findings provide insight into how people use online spaces to engage in dialogue about the positive and negative outcomes of real women campaigns.

Despite growing opportunities for online discourse, women consistently face hostility in online forums. This chapter considers how conversations devoted to women’s issues become spaces for misogyny or feminist community-building. Through analyzing online forums associated with female-authored news coverage of NFL player Ray Rice’s violence against his fiancée in 2014, the researchers studied how these forums represented characteristics of online publics and networked publics, in particular. Findings show that participants shared personal testimonies and suggestions for reform, and some journalists encouraged supportive discourse. However, some uncivil behavior and criticism of women’s presence also emerged. The conclusion presents tactics for encouraging women to participate, but some practices may inhibit feminist discourse unless the forum structure can be managed to control the context and audience for conversation.

Academics are increasingly using social media to share teaching resources and research collaborations. However, research shows that many academic women increasingly worry that if they engage in certain kinds of conversations, especially about feminist issues, they will face harassment or threats at some point. This chapter, which is based on interviews with 45 man and woman scholars, explores the ways that women and minority academics’ fear of harassment online leads to self-censorship, creating a digital Spiral of Silence. While many of our interviewees indicated that the only way to avoid negative backlash would be to carefully censor what they said online, others indicated that online engagements—both negative and positive—are important for scholars to continue supporting one another and spreading knowledge.

To combat the rising tide of online harassment many women are turning to counterspeech as a way of fighting digital misogyny. Stroud and Cox explore the range of feminist counterspeech by engaging two representative case studies from the current online environment. The first example analyzed is Anna Gensler, a feminist who uses her artistic talents and social media as a way to shame harassers and misogynistic men. The second case study explored is TrollBusters, an organization dedicated to fighting the online bullying of females. The chapter concludes with an analysis of the various normative values involved in choosing a strategy of counterspeech, as well as the various ethical concerns that circulate around each strategy represented by the two case studies analyzed in this chapter.

For women journalists, online harassment may result in emotional stress and may require legal and technological remedies to mitigate the damage caused to their identity and reputation. Perpetrators can use a combination of online and offline attacks that threaten the employment and safety of journalists. In the case of women writers, misogynistic and racist attacks can create a chilling effect that silences their voices online and creates a deterrent to freedom of expression that ultimately erodes the freedom of the press. Based on the examination of seminal work, case studies and personal anecdotes, this chapter investigates the consequences of abuse via Twitter and Facebook on the freedom of speech, the emotional and psychological impact on women journalists, and its implications on press freedom. Moreover, before suggesting digital defense strategies for journalists, the chapter also chronicles the development of TrollBusters, a platform for women journalists that counters online hate with positive messaging and just-in-time rescue services.

Desborough provides an account of the role of digital technologies in enabling the emergence and development of the global anti-street harassment movement. The chapter argues that feminist activists have leveraged the affordances of digital technologies to create, organize, and participate in anti-street harassment activism, thereby facilitating the formation and expansion of the movement. Desborough examines how digital technologies help to, first, reduce the costs of organizing and participating in collective action, and afford women new opportunities to speak about and resist street harassment; second, promote collective identity, which helps to foster and maintain participation; and third, and relatedly, enable the formation of online communities of (primarily) women resisting street harassment.

In this chapter we explore two events: the first author’s personal experience of going viral for reporting a sexual assault – and subsequently, having been labeled a “celebrity victim” by a mainstream media outlet; and the second author’s experience of having her feminist academic Twitter profile aggressively trolled for speaking out against rape culture. The Internet presents new forms of mediated spaces where women have created platforms to report their experiences of sexual assault and fight back against gender and sexual violence and rape culture (Rentschler, Fem Media Stud, 15(2): 353–356, 2015), whilst simultaneously offering new, and often anonymous, pathways for misogyny and abuse to proliferate and spread (Ging, The Manosphere’s “toxic technocultures”: social media and the new communicative politics of men’s rights [Invited lecture]. Mediated feminisms: activism and resistance to gender and sexual violence in the digital age, UCL Institute of Education, 2016; Jane, Misogyny online: a short (and brutish) history. Sage, Los Angeles, 2017; Phipps et al., J Gender Stud, https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​09589236.​2016.​1266792, 2017). We examine how prominent anti-feminist discourses that undermine discussions of sexual violence online operate and contextualize this discussion in relation to the exacerbation of hate speech surrounding the Donald Trump presidency. We also demonstrate how feminist activism and resistance to rape culture has grown during the Trump era, exploring the connectivity and collectivity enabled through social media platforms. We then hone in on one example of this feminist resistance through a discussion of the Facebook group, Pantsuit Nation, which uses storytelling and narrative approaches to fight back against the normalizing sexual violence, a theme that permeated the U.S. election.

Using the lens of the 2016 U.S. presidential election, this chapter explored how Twitter is both a dangerous space for women and a digital sphere that women have reclaimed from rampant misogyny. We qualitatively analyzed 1,390 tweets that used the hashtags #NastyWomen or #NastyWoman that were posted after President Donald Trump, a presidential candidate at the time, called his opponent Hillary Clinton a “nasty woman” during the final debate of the campaign. Using a discourse analysis of the tweets that use these hashtags, we probed how hashtags are used to shame and silence women but are also a potent tool of women’s digital empowerment. We found that women, particularly women of color, used these hashtags to symbolically reroute the conversation about “nasty women” into something productive, rather than dwell on the hateful words. Thus, the hashtags drew women together into intimate publics, where they felt emboldened being political together. As a result, these hashtags enabled women who supported Clinton to challenge the patriarchy in the collective digital space of Twitter. We believe these hashtags about Clinton offer a microcosm of the types of experiences average women have online, as they also face digital misogyny and have the power to reclaim this sphere through the use of hashtag feminism.

We conclude with a series of questions and answers about how different stakeholders can help combat mediated misogyny and contribute to a safer world: digital platforms, journalism, the law, and universities. Experts in each of these fields present tangible advice, ethics, and guidelines for changing systems of power and challenging misogyny.