Introduction
Theory and research on concentrated ownership
Ownership concentration and firm performance in Asia
The identity of concentrated owners
Country-level moderating effects
Methods
Methodological overview
Sample and coding
Variable | Description |
---|---|
Ownership concentration | A measure of the degree to which ownership in the firm is concentrated in the hands of a single investor; concentrated ownership refers both to substantial minority shareholders as well as to large shareholders enjoying outright control over the firm. Common cut-off points above which ownership is seen as (highly) concentrated are 10% and 20% ownership levels respectively (La Porta et al., 1999) |
Domestic owner | A variable which assumes a positive value (either “1” in case of dummy operationalizations or a percentage in case the degree of ownership concentration is known) when the dominant owner is a domestic party (e.g., a domestic firm, financial institution, business group, or other; see for instance Douma et al., 2006). |
Foreign owner | A variable which assumes a positive value (either “1” in case of dummy operationalizations or a percentage in case the degree of ownership concentration is known) when the dominant owner is a foreign party (e.g., a foreign firm, financial institution, business group, or other; see for instance Douma et al., 2006). |
Inside investor | A variable which assumes a positive value (either “1” in case of dummy operationalizations or a percentage in case the degree of ownership concentration is known) when the dominant owner is an insider in the firm (e.g., managers, founders, and their immediate family members; see for instance Gedajlovic et al., 2005). |
Market investor | A variable which assumes a positive value (either “1” in case of dummy operationalizations or a percentage in case the degree of ownership concentration is known) when the dominant owner is solely tied to the firm via an arm's length equity stake (e.g., foreign shareholders, pension funds, and investment trusts; see for instance Gedajlovic et al., 2005). |
Stable investor | A variable which assumes a positive value (either “1” in case of dummy operationalizations or a percentage in case the degree of ownership concentration is known) when the dominant owner is durably tied to the firm via multiple business ties over and above the equity tie (e.g., banks, business partners, or firms that are a member in the same business group; see for instance Gedajlovic et al., 2005). |
Accounting performance | Any indicator of the financial performance of the firm that is expressed in the form of an accounting-based measure of firm profits (ROA, ROE, ROS, ROI, EPS, and PM). |
Market performance | Any indicator of the financial performance of the firm that is expressed in the form of a market-based measure of firm value (stock returns, market-to-book ratio, Tobin’s Q). |
Rule of law | A variable which measures the extent to which agents have confidence in and abide by the rules of society in 2002. These include perceptions of the incidence of violent and non-violent crime, the effectiveness and predictability of the judiciary, and the enforceability of contracts (Kaufmann et al., 2005). |
Anti-self-dealing index | A variable which measures the extent to which national jurisdictions offer minority shareholders protection against expropriation by controlling shareholders, expressed in the form of a zero (low protection) to one (high protection) index. The index includes ex-ante and ex-post controls around self-dealing transactions (Djankov et al., 2008). |
Private benefits of control index | A variable which measures the excess value (over and above the market value) of a controlling block of shares as measured in an exchange transaction. This excess value, which is paid in the form of a “block premium,” captures the discounted future cash flows the acquirer expects to expropriate from minority shareholders. The block premium is computed by taking the difference between the price per share paid for the control block and the exchange price 2 days after the announcement of the control transaction, dividing by the exchange price and multiplying by the ratio of the proportion of cash flow rights represented in the controlling block (Dyck & Zingales, 2004). |
Publication year | For journal articles: year in which the article first appeared in print. For working papers: year in which the paper was first included in a publicly accessible working paper series. |
Published | A dummy variable measuring whether a specific study was published in a scholarly peer reviewed journal (1) or not (0). |
Cross-sectional design | A dummy variable measuring whether the data included in a specific study was based on a cross-sectional (1) or a longitudinal (0) observation plan. |
Ln GDP/capita | Natural log of per capita gross domestic product in 2003 US dollars (World Development Indicators at: http://devdata.worldbank.org/dataonline/). |
Stock market capitalization/GDP | Average of the ratio of stock market capitalization to gross domestic product for the period 1999–2003 (World Development Indicators at: http://devdata.worldbank.org/dataonline/). |
HOMA procedure
MARA procedure
Results
Hypothesis testing
Predictor | K |
N
| Mean | SDρ
| CI 95% |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ownership concentration to performance | 290 | 660,087 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.03/0.05 |
Accounting measures | 206 | 546,766 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.03/0.06 |
Market measures | 84 | 113,321 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.01/0.06 |
Domestic owners to performance | 128 | 341,991 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01/0.04 |
Accounting measures | 89 | 271,744 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01/0.04 |
Market measures | 39 | 70,247 | 0.02 | 0.02 | −0.02/0.06 |
Foreign owners to performance | 46 | 49,474 | 0.15 | 0.02 | 0.11/0.19 |
Accounting measures | 32 | 35,790 | 0.17 | 0.02 | 0.12/0.21 |
Market measures | 14 | 13,684 | 0.12 | 0.03 | 0.06/0.17 |
Market owners to performance | 67 | 68,957 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.10/0.16 |
Accounting measures | 48 | 49,753 | 0.14 | 0.02 | 0.10/0.17 |
Market measures | 19 | 19,204 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.05/0.15 |
Stable owners to performance | 90 | 346,066 | 0.01 | 0.01 | −0.00/0.02 |
Accounting measures | 70 | 302,715 | 0.01 | 0.01 | −0.00/0.03 |
Market measures | 20 | 43,351 | −0.00 | 0.01 | −0.03/0.03 |
Inside owners to performance | 81 | 117,874 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.02/0.07 |
Accounting measures | 53 | 93,911 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.03/0.06 |
Market measures | 28 | 23,963 | 0.03 | 0.04 | −0.05/0.11 |
Ownership concentration to performance | |||||
0% to 10% | 62 | 132,754 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.06/0.11 |
10% to 25% | 60 | 42,295 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.03/0.11 |
25% to 50% | 47 | 177,402 | 0.00 | 0.01 | −0.02/0.03 |
50% to 100% | 3 | 5,326 | 0.04 | 0.05 | −0.05/0.14 |
Country | Predictor | K |
N
| Mean | SDρ
| CI 95% |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
China | Ownership to performance | 33 | 87,488 | 0.02 | 0.02 | −0.03/0.06 |
Market owners to performance | – | – | – | – | – | |
Stable owners to performance | 17 | 46,006 | −0.03 | 0.02 | −0.07/0.00 | |
Inside owners to performance | 9 | 9,168 | 0.10 | 0.10 | −0.09/0.29 | |
Hong Kong | Ownership to performance | 32 | 46,052 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.00/0.03 |
Market owners to performance | 3 | 6,318 | 0.02 | 0.02 | −0.02/0.07 | |
Stable owners to performance | 3 | 6,318 | 0.02 | 0.03 | −0.04/0.07 | |
Inside owners to performance | 6 | 12,636 | 0.02 | 0.02 | −0.01/0.05 | |
India | Ownership to performance | 24 | 14,979 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.02/0.09 |
Market owners to performance | 14 | 8,607 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.03/0.13 | |
Stable owners to performance | 4 | 342 | −0.05 | 0.05 | −0.15/0.06 | |
Inside owners to performance | 3 | 2,098 | 0.02 | 0.04 | −0.06/0.09 | |
Japan | Ownership to performance | 62 | 374,610 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.02/0.06 |
Market owners to performance | 15 | 15,361 | 0.16 | 0.04 | 0.09/0.24 | |
Stable owners to performance | 24 | 233,016 | 0.02 | 0.01 | −0.01/0.04 | |
Inside owners to performance | 4 | 47,206 | 0.04 | 0.03 | −0.01/0.09 | |
Malaysia | Ownership to performance | 11 | 9,943 | 0.02 | 0.03 | −0.03/0.07 |
Market owners to performance | 2 | 292 | 0.19 | 0.06 | 0.08/0.31 | |
Stable owners to performance | – | – | – | – | – | |
Inside owners to performance | 5 | 6,095 | −0.05 | 0.03 | −0.11/0.01 | |
Singapore | Ownership to performance | 21 | 51,590 | 0.01 | 0.01 | −0.01/0.04 |
Market owners to performance | 6 | 11,430 | −0.00 | 0.02 | −0.05/0.03 | |
Stable owners to performance | 8 | 11,746 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.00/0.07 | |
Inside owners to performance | 4 | 532 | −0.06 | 0.04 | −0.15/0.02 | |
South Korea | Ownership to performance | 53 | 41,674 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.04/0.08 |
Market owners to performance | 17 | 21,875 | 0.14 | 0.02 | 0.10/0.19 | |
Stable owners to performance | 14 | 34,771 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.00/0.05 | |
Inside owners to performance | 12 | 17,027 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.00/0.04 | |
Taiwan | Ownership to performance | 37 | 13,182 | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.08/0.16 |
Market owners to performance | 7 | 1,230 | 0.27 | 0.03 | 0.22/0.33 | |
Stable owners to performance | 10 | 2,280 | 0.04 | 0.03 | −0.02/0.10 | |
Inside owners to performance | 18 | 9,582 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.08/0.18 | |
Thailand | Ownership to performance | 5 | 5,424 | −0.02 | 0.05 | −0.10/0.07 |
Market owners to performance | – | – | – | – | – | |
Stable owners to performance | – | – | – | – | – | |
Inside owners to performance | – | – | – | – | – |
Variable | Model |
---|---|
Publication year | 0.00 (0.00) |
Published | −0.20 (0.07)** |
Cross-sectional design | 0.02 (0.02) |
Rule of law | 0.74 (0.35)** |
Anti-self-dealing index | −1.43 (0.62)** |
Private benefits of control | −0.99 (0.31)** |
Gross domestic product | −0.54 (0.25)* |
Stock market capitalization | 0.00 (0.00)** |
R
2
| 0.2183 |
K
| 235 |
QModel (p) | 46.60 (0.00) |
QResidual (p) | 166.88 (0.14) |
V
| 0.00468 |