1 Introduction
2 Literature review
2.1 Corruption
2.2 Corruption and tourism relationship
3 Aims of the present study and methodology
3.1 Data description and the tourism demand model
4 Empirical results
Threshold variable | P value | Threshold | n1 | n2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Corruption (single threshold) | 0.0014 | 0.5208 | 634 | 860 |
Corruption (double threshold) | 0.6583 | 0.5903 | – | – |
Variable | Linear coef | Low corruption Regime \(\le \)0.5208 coef | High corruption Regime \(>\)0.5208 Coef | Low corruption Regime \(\le \)0.5208 coef | High corruption Regime \(>\)0.5208 coef | Low corruption Regime \(\le \)0.5208 coef | High corruption Regime \(>\)0.5208 coef |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Corruption | − 0.2532** (0.1266) | 0.3841*** (0.1431) | − 0.3267*** (0.1155) | 0.4034*** (0.1541) | − 0.3996*** (0.1262) | 0.4393*** (0.1347) | − 0.3677*** (0.1240) |
Civil disorder | 0.0619 (0.0803) | − | − | − 0.1267 (0.1287) | − 0.0591 (0.1235) | 0.1422 (0.0937) | 0.0789 (0.1017) |
Civil war | − 0.5712*** (0.1303) | − | − | − 0.2043 (0.2121) | − 0.8083*** (0.1390) | − 0.1934 (0.1565) | − 0.9038*** (0.1136) |
Economic risk rating | − 0.0442 (0.1339) | − | − | − 0.3093 (0.1989) | − 0.8249*** (0.2442) | − 0.2720 (0.2426) | − 0.9272*** (0.1962) |
Ethnic tensions | − 0.9625*** (0.2461) | − | − | − 0.8487*** (0.2341) | − 0.9790*** (0.2212) | − 0.7895*** (0.1771) | − 0.9825*** (0.1796) |
Financial risk rating | − 0.2970* (0.1709) | − | − | − 0.3098** (0.1301) | − 0.7701*** (0.2115) | − 0.4425** (0.1737) | − 0.5547*** (0.1787) |
Foreign pressures | 0.0795 (0.1108) | − | − | − 0.3212 (0.2298) | − 0.6549*** (0.1345) | − 0.2056 (0.2871) | − 0.7804*** (0.1123) |
Law and order | 0.3039 (0.2623) | − | − | − 0.2353 (0.2922) | − 0.4980* (0.2630) | 0.1279 (0.2209) | − 0.5154** (0.2118) |
Military in politics | − 0.2698 (0.1709) | − | − | − 0.1521 (0.2220) | − 0.6038*** (0.1882) | 0.1996 (0.1689) | − 0.4217*** (0.1549) |
Religious tensions | − 0.8268*** (0.2658) | − | − | − 0.4983*** (0.1903) | − 0.6787*** (0.2216) | − 0.5892*** (0.1446) | − 0.9089*** (0.1787) |
Risk for exchange rate stability | − 0.0149 (0.0770) | − | − | − 0.2366 (0.1508) | − 0.3441*** (0.1095) | 0.0200 (0.0902) | − 0.2988*** (0.0967) |
GDP PC | 1.6509*** (0.0829) | 1.2340*** (0.0675) | 0.9537*** (0.0956) | − | − | 1.3067*** (0.0980) | 1.2283*** (0.0809) |
Open | 0.2546*** (0.0564) | 0.2479*** (0.0434) | 0.1289 (0.0906) | − | − | 0.1846*** (0.0458) | 0.1255* (0.0725) |
Inflation (%) | − 0.0053*** (0.0015) | − 0.0084 (0.0347) | − 0.0031*** (0.0012) | − | − | − 0.0057 (0.0048) | − 0.0021* (0.0012) |
Country | Low corruption regime | High corruption regime |
---|---|---|
Angola | 2001–2018 | |
Armenia | 2001–2018 | |
Austria | 2001–2018 | |
Bahamas | 2001–2018 | |
Belarus | 2001–2018 | |
Belgium | 2001–2018 | |
Bolivia | 2001 | 2002–2018 |
Brazil | 2003, 2009–2011 | 2001–2002, 2004–2008, 2012–2018 |
Bulgaria | 2017–2018 | 2001–2016 |
Burkina Faso | 2001–2018 | |
Canada | 2001–2018 | |
Chile | 2001–2002, 2005–2018 | 2003–2004 |
China | 2001–2018 | |
Colombia | 2003–2005, 2009–2011 | 2001–2002, 2006–2008, 2012–2018 |
Congo (Republic) | 2001–2002 | 2003–2018 |
Costa Rica | 2001–2002, 2015–2017 | 2003–2014, 2018 |
Croatia | 2001–2004, 2010–2011, 2015–2018 | 2005–2009, 2012–2014 |
Cyprus | 2001–2018 | |
Denmark | 2001–2018 | |
Dominican Republic | 2001 | 2002–2018 |
Egypt | 2001–2018 | |
Estonia | 2001–2018 | |
Finland | 2001–2018 | |
France | 2001–2018 | |
Gambia | 2001–2004 | 2005–2018 |
Germany | 2001–2018 | |
Greece | 2001 | 2002–2018 |
Guyana | 2001–2005 | 2006–2018 |
Haiti | 2001–2018 | |
Hong Kong | 2001–2018 | |
Hungary | 2001–2018 | |
Iceland | 2001–2018 | |
India | 2001–2018 | |
Ireland | 2002–2003, 2005–2018 | 2001, 2004 |
Israel | 2001–2018 | |
Italy | 2001, 2018 | 2002–2017 |
Jordan | 2001–2011, 2015–2018 | 2012–2014 |
Latvia | 2015–2017 | 2001–2014, 2018 |
Lithuania | 2001, 2015–2018 | 2002–2014 |
Luxembourg | 2001–2018 | |
Madagascar | 2001–2011 | 2012–2018 |
Malawi | 2001 | 2002–2018 |
Malaysia | 2001–2018 | |
Mali | 2003 | 2001–2002, 2004–2018 |
Malta | 2001–2018 | |
Mexico | 2001 | 2002–2018 |
Moldova | 2001–2018 | |
Mongolia | 2001–2018 | |
Morocco | 2001–2004, 2006–2011, 2017–2018 | 2005, 2012–2016 |
Mozambique | 2001–2018 | |
Myanmar | 2001–2018 | |
Netherlands | 2001–2018 | |
New Zealand | 2001–2018 | |
Nicaragua | 2001 | 2002–2018 |
Niger | 2001–2018 | |
Norway | 2001–2018 | |
Oman | 2015–2018 | 2001–2014 |
Panama | 2001–2018 | |
Paraguay | 2001–2018 | |
Peru | 2001 | 2002–2018 |
Philippines | 2001–2018 | |
Poland | 2013–2018 | 2001–2012 |
Portugal | 2001–2018 | |
Qatar | 2013–2018 | 2001–2012 |
Saudi Arabia | 2015–2018 | 2001–2014 |
Sierra Leone | 2001 | 2002–2018 |
Singapore | 2001–2018 | |
Slovenia | 2001–2018 | |
South Africa | 2001, 2010–2011 | 2002–2009, 2012–2018 |
Spain | 2001–2018 | |
Sri Lanka | 2001–2004 | 2005–2018 |
Sudan | 2001–2018 | |
Tanzania | 2007–2009 | 2001–2006, 2010–2018 |
Thailand | 2001–2018 | |
Togo | 2001–2018 | |
Trinidad and Tobago | 2001 | 2002–2018 |
Tunisia | 2001 | 2002–2018 |
Turkey | 2001–2018 | |
Ukraine | 2001–2018 | |
United Kingdom | 2001–2018 | |
United States | 2001–2018 | |
Uruguay | 2001–2018 | |
Zambia | 2005–2011 | 2001–2004, 2012–2018 |