Top

Published in:

2011 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

1. Nuclear and Radiochemistry: the First 100 Years

Authors : G. Friedlander, G. Herrmann

Published in: Handbook of Nuclear Chemistry

Publisher: Springer US

Activate our intelligent search to find suitable subject content or patents.

search-config

AI-assisted search

Off

Abstract

This chapter gives a brief overview of the development of nuclear and radiochemistry from Mme. Curie’s chemical isolation of radium toward the end of the twentieth century. The first four sections deal with fairly distinct time periods: (1) the pioneering years when the only radioactive materials available were the naturally occurring ones; (2) the decade of rapid growth and expansion of both the fundamental science and its applications following the discoveries of the neutron and artificial radioactivity; (3) the World War II period characterized by the intense exploration of nuclear fission and its ramifications; (4) what can be called the “golden era” – the 3 to 4 decades following World War II when nuclear science was generously supported and therefore flourished. In the final section, research trends pursued near the end of the century are briefly touched upon.

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

next chapter Basic Properties of the Atomic Nucleus

Abazov AI, Anosov OL, Faizov EL et al (1991) Search for neutrinos from the sun using the reaction ⁷¹Ga (ν_e, e^-) ⁷¹Ge. Phys Rev Lett 67:3332

Alvarez LW (1937) Nuclear K electron capture. Phys Rev 52:134

Anger HO (1958) Scintillation camera. Rev Sci Instrum 29:27

Anselmann P, Hampel W, Heusser G et al (1992a) Solar neutrinos observed by GALLEX at Gran Sasso. Phys Lett B 285:376

Anselmann P, Hampel W, Heusser G et al (1992b) Implications of the GALLEX determination of the solar neutrino flux. Phys Lett B 285:390

Arima A, Iachello F (1975) Collective nuclear states as representations of a SU(6) group. Phys Rev Lett 35:1069

Armbruster P (1984) On the production of heavy elements by cold fusion: the elements 106 to 109. Ann Rev Nucl Part Sci 35:135

Baranov VI, Kretschmer SI (1935) Verwendung von Lichtplatten mit dicker Emulsionsschicht zur Erforschung der Verteilung radioaktiver Elemente in Naturobjekten. Compt Rend Acad Sci URSS I:546

Becquerel H (1896) Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence. Compt Rend 122:420; Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents. Compt Rend 122:501, 559, 689, 762, 1086

Bender M, Rutz K, Reinhard PG et al (1999) Shell structure of superheavy nuclei in self-consistent mean-field models. Phys Rev C 60:034304

Berson SE, Yalow RS (1957) Kinetics of reaction between insulin and insulin-binding antibody. J Clin Invest 36:873

Bertolini G, Coche A (eds) (1968) Semiconductor Detectors. North-Holland, Amsterdam

Bethe HA (1939) Energy production in stars. Phys Rev 55:434

Blumgart HL, Weiss S (1927) Studies of the velocity of blood flow II, The velocity of blood flow in normal resting individuals and a critique of the method used. J Clin Invest 4:16

Bodu R, Bouzigues H, Morin N et al (1972) Sur l’existence d’anomalies isotopiques rencontrées dans l’uranium du Gabon. Compt Rend D 275:1731

Bohr A, Mottelson BR (1953) Collective and individual particle aspects of nuclear structure. Danske Vidensk Selsk Mat-fys Medd 27, No. 16

Bohr N (1913) Constitution of atoms and molecules I, II. Phil Mag 26:1, 476

Bohr N (1936) Neutron capture and nuclear constitution. Nature 137:344

Bohr N (1939) Resonance in uranium and thorium disintegrations and the phenomenon of nuclear fission. Phys Rev 55:418

Bohr N, Kalckar F (1937) On the transmutation of atomic nuclei by impact of material particles I, General theoretical remarks. Danske Vidensk Selsk Mat-fys Medd 14, No. 10

Bohr N, Wheeler JA (1939) The mechanism of nuclear fission. Phys Rev 56:426

Boltwood B (1907) On the ultimate disintegration products of the radioactive elements. Am J Sci 23:77

Bromley DA (1984) The development of heavy-ion nuclear physics. In: Bromley DA (ed) Treatise on heavy-ion science, vol 1. Plenum, New York, pp 3–50

Burbidge EM, Burbidge GR, Fowler WA, Hoyle F (1957) Synthesis of the elements in stars. Rev Mod Phys 29:547

Calvin M, Benson AA (1949) The path of carbon in photosynthesis IV. The identity and sequence of the intermediates in sucrose synthesis. Science 109:140

Calvin M, Heidelberger Ch, Reid JC et al (1949) Isotopic carbon: techniques in its measurement and chemical manipulation. Wiley, New York

Cameron AT (1910) Radiochemistry. J. M. Dent, London

Campbell NR, Wood A (1906) The radioactivity of the alkali metals. Proc Cambr Philos Soc 14:15

Cassen B, Curtis L, Reed C et al (1951) Instrumentation for I¹³¹ use in medical studies. Nucleonics 9(2):46

Chadwick J (1932) The existence of a neutron. Proc Roy Soc A (Lond) 136:692

Chiewitz O, Hevesy G (1935) Radioactive indicators in the study of phosphorus metabolism in rats. Nature 136:754

Christiansen JA, Hevesy G, Lomholt S (1924) Recherches, par une méthode radiochimique, sur la circulation du bismuth dans l’organisme. Compt Rend 178:1324

Cleveland BT, Daily T, Davis R Jr et al (1998) Measurement of the solar electron neutrino flux with the Homestake chlorine detector. Astrophys J 496:505

Cockcroft JD, Walton ETS (1930) Experiments with high velocity positive ions. Proc Roy Soc A (Lond) 129:477

Cockcroft JD, Walton ETS (1932) Further developments in the method of obtaining high-velocity positive ions. Proc Roy Soc A (Lond) 136:619

Corson DR, MacKenzie KR, Segrè E (1940a) Possible production of radioactive isotopes of element 85. Phys Rev 57:459

Corson DR, MacKenzie KR, Segrè E (1940b) Artificially radioactive element 85. Phys Rev 58:672

Coryell CD, Sugarman N (eds) (1951) Radiochemical studies: the fission products, vol 1–3. McGraw-Hill, New York

Cowan JJ, Thielemann F-K, Truran JW (1991) The r-process and nucleochronology. Phys Rep 208:267

Cunningham BB, Werner LB (1949) The first isolation of plutonium. J Am Chem Soc 71:1521

Curie I, Joliot F (1934) Un nouveau type de radioactivité. Compt Rend 198:254; Séparation chimique des nouveaux radioéléments émetteurs d’électrons positifs. Compt Rend 198:559

Curie I, Savitch P (1938) Sur les radio-éléments formés dans l’uranium irradié par les neutrons II. J Phys Radium 9:355

Curie M (1902) Sur le poids atomique du radium. Compt Rend 135:161

Curie P, Curie MS (1898) Sur une substance nouvelle radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende. Compt Rend 127:175

Curie P, Curie M, Bémont G (1898) Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active contenue dans la pechblende. Compt Rend 127:1215

Curtis L, Cassen B (1952) Speeding up and improving contrast of thyroid scintigrams. Nucleonics 10(9):58

D’Agostino O (1935) Nuovi elementi radioattivi arteficiale. Gazz Chim Ital 65:1071

Davis R Jr, Harmer DS, Hoffman KC (1968) Search for neutrinos from the sun. Phys Rev Lett 20:1205

Debierne A (1899) Sur une nouvelle matière radio-active. Compt Rend 129:593

Demarçay E (1898) Sur l’espectre d’une substance radio-active. Compt Rend 127:1218

Dostrovsky I, Fraenkel Z, Friedlander G (1959) Monte Carlo calculations of nuclear evaporation processes III, Applications to low-energy reactions. Phys Rev 116:683

Düllmann Ch, Brüchle W, Dressler R et al (2002) Chemical investigation of hassium (element 108). Nature 418:859

Eckelman WC, Richards P (1970) Instant ^99mTc DTPA. J Nucl Med 11:761

Eddington AS (1926) The source of stellar energy. Nature 117(Suppl):25

Eichler R, Brüchle W, Dressler R et al (2000) Chemical characterization of bohrium (element 107). Nature 407:63

Elsasser WR (1933) Sur le principe de Pauli dans les noyaux I. J Phys Radium 4:549

Elsasser WR (1934) Sur le principe de Pauli dans les noyaux II, III. J Phys Radium 5:389, 635

Fajans K (1913) Die Stellung der Radioelemente im Periodischen System. Physik Z 14:136

Faure G, Powell JL (1972) Strontium isotope geology. Springer, Berlin

Fermi E (1934a) Versuch einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. Z Phys 88:161

Fermi E (1934b) Possible production of elements of atomic number higher than 92. Nature 133:898

Fermi E, Amaldi E, D’Agostino O et al (1934) Artificial radioactivity produced by neutron bombardment. Proc Roy Soc A (Lond) 146:483

Fermi E, Rasetti F (1935) Ricerche sui neutroni lenti. Nuovo Cimento 12:201

Fiset EO, Nix JR (1972) Calculations of half-lives for superheavy nuclei. Nucl Phys A 193:647

Flerov GN, Petrzhak KA (1940) Spontaneous fission of uranium. Phys Rev 58:89

Flerov GN, Oganessian YuTs, Lobanov YuV et al (1971) On the synthesis of element 105. Nucl Phys A 160:181

Fowler WA (1984) Experimental and theoretical nuclear astrophysics, The quest for the origin of the elements. Rev Mod Phys 56:149

Frenkel Y (1936) Über das Festkörpermodell schwerer Kerne. Physik Z Sowj 9:533

Fricke B (1975) Superheavy elements. A prediction of their chemical and physical properties. Struct Bond 21:89

Friedlander G, Kennedy JW (1949) Introduction to radiochemistry. Wiley, New York

Friedlander G, Kennedy JW (1955) Nuclear and radiochemistry. Wiley, New York

Frisch OR (1939) Physical evidence for the division of heavy nuclei under neutron bombardment. Nature 143:276

Gäggeler HW, Jost DT, Kovacs U et al (1992) Gas phase chromatography experiments with bromides of tantalum and element 105. Radiochim Acta 57:93

Gamow G (1928) Zur Quantentheorie des Atomkerns. Z Phys 51:204

Gamow G (1929) Über die Struktur der Atomkerne. Physik Z 30:717

Gamow G (1946) Expanding universe and the origin of elements. Phys Rev 70:572

Geiger H, Müller W (1928) Elektronenzählrohr zur Messung schwächster Aktivitäten. Naturwiss 16:617

Geiger H, Nuttall JM (1911) The ranges of the α-particles from various radioactive substances and a relation between range and period of transformation. Phil Mag 22:613

Gentner W, Kley W (1955) Zur geologischen Altersbestimmung nach der Kalium-Argon-Methode. Z Naturforsch 10a:832

Ghiorso A, Harvey BG, Choppin GR et al (1955a) New element mendelevium, atomic number 101. Phys Rev 98:1518

Ghiorso A, Thompson SG, Higgins GH et al (1955b) New elements einsteinium and fermium, atomic numbers 99 and 100. Phys Rev 99:1048

Ghiorso A, Nurmia M, Eskola K et al (1970) New element hahnium, atomic number 105. Phys Rev Lett 24:1498

Giesel F (1902) Über Radium und radioaktive Stoffe. Ber Dtsch Chem Ges 35:3608

Glückauf E, Fay JWJ (1936) Direct production of organic compounds containing artificial radioelements. J Chem Soc 1936:390

Green JH, Maddock AG (1949) (n, γ) Recoil effects in potassium chromate and dichromate. Nature 164:788

Guillaumont R, Adloff JP, Peneloux A (1989) Kinetic and thermodynamic aspects of tracer-scale and single-atom chemistry. Radiochim Acta 46:169

Guillaumont R, Adloff JP, Peneloux A et al (1991) Sub-tracer scale behaviour of radionuclides, Application to actinide chemistry. Radiochim Acta 54:1

Gurney RW, Condon EU (1928) Wave mechanics and radioactive disintegration. Nature 122:439

Gurney RW, Condon EU (1929) Quantum mechanics and radioactive disintegration. Phys Rev 33:127

Hahn O (1922) Über das Uran Z und seine Muttersubstanz. Z Physik Chem 103:461

Hahn O (1936) Applied radiochemistry. Cornell University Press), Ithaca

Hahn O, Meitner L (1918) Die Muttersubstanz des Actiniums, ein neues radioaktives Element von langer Lebensdauer. Physik Z 19:208

Hahn O, Meitner L, Strassmann F (1936) Neue Umwandlungs-Prozesse bei Neutronen-Bestrahlung des Urans: Elemente jenseits Uran. Ber Dtsch Chem Ges 69:905

Hahn O, Strassmann F (1939a) Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle. Naturwiss 27:11

Hahn O, Strassmann F (1939b) Nachweis der Entstehung aktiver Bariumisotope aus Uran und Thorium durch Neutronenbestrahlung, Nachweis weiterer aktiver Bruchstücke bei der Uranspaltung. Naturwiss 27:89

Hahn O, Strassmann F, Mattauch J et al (1943) Geologische Altersbestimmung mit der Strontiummethode. Chemiker Ztg 67:55

Hamilton JG, Soley MH (1939) Studies in iodine metabolism by the use of a new radioactive isotope of iodine. Am J Physiol 127:557

Hamilton JG, Soley MH (1940) Studies in iodine metabolism of the thyroid gland in situ by the use of radio-iodine in normal subjects and in patients with various types of goiter. Am J Physiol 131:135

Haxel O, Jensen JHD, Suess HE (1950) Modellmässige Deutung der ausgezeichneten Nukleonenzahlen im Kernbau. Z Phys 128:295

Herrmann G (1979) Superheavy-element research. Nature 280:543

Herrmann G (2003) Historical reminiscences. In: Schädel M (ed) The chemistry of the superheavy elements. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 291–316

Herrmann G, Trautmann N (1982) Rapid chemical methods for identification and study of short-lived nuclides. Ann Rev Nucl Part Sci 32:117

Hevesy G (1915) Über den Austausch der Atome zwischen festen und flüssigen Phasen. Physik Z 16:52

Hevesy G (1923) Absorption and translocation of lead by plants, A contribution to the application of the method of radioactive indicators to the investigation of the change of substance in plants. Biochem J 17:439

Hevesy G, Levi H (1936) The action of neutrons on rare earth elements. Danske Vidensk Selsk Mat-fys Medd 14, No. 5

Hevesy G, Paneth F (1913) Die Löslichkeit des Bleisulfids und Bleichromats. Z Anorg Chem 82:323

Hofmann S, Reisdorf W, Münzenberg G et al (1982) Proton radioactivity of ¹⁵¹Lu. Z Phys A 305:111

Hönigschmid O, Horovitz S (1914) Sur le poids atomique du plomb de la pechblende. Compt Rend 158:1796

Ido T, Wan C-N, Casella V et al (1978) Labeled 2-deoxy-D-glucose analogs, ¹⁸F-labeled 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-glucose, 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-mannose and ¹⁴C-2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-glucose. J Labelled Compd Radiopharm 14:175

IUPAC (1997) International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry: names and symbols of transfermium elements. Pure Appl Chem 69:2471

Jauncey GEM (1946) The early years of radioactivity. Am J Phys 14:226

Jones AG (1995) Technetium in nuclear medicine. Radiochim Acta 70/71:289

Kamen MD (1963) Early history of carbon-14. Science 140:584

Katz JJ, Morss LR, Seaborg GT (1986) Summary and comparative aspects of the actinide elements. In: Katz JJ, Seaborg GT, Morss LR (eds) The chemistry of the actinide elements, 2nd edn. Chapman & Hall, London, pp 1121–1193

Kaufmann R, Wolfgang R (1959) Complex nucleon transfer reaction of heavy ions. Phys Rev Lett 3:232

Kaufmann R, Wolfgang R (1961) Nucleon transfer reactions in grazing collisions of heavy ions. Phys Rev 121:192

Kennedy JW, Seaborg GT, Segrè E, Wahl AC (1946) Properties of 94 (239). Phys Rev 70:555

Kim JL (1986) Chemical behaviour of transuranic elements in natural aquatic systems. In: Freeman AJ, Keller C (eds) Handbook on the physics and chemistry of the actinides, vol 4. North-Holland, Amsterdam, pp 413–455

Kirsten T (1978) Time and the solar system. In: Dermott SF (ed) Origin of the solar system. Wiley, Chichester, pp 267–346

Kluge H-J, Bollen G (1992) Ion traps: recent applications and developments. Nucl Instr Meth B 70:473

Kratz JV, Zimmermann HP, Scherer UW et al (1989) Chemical properties of element 105 in aqueous solution, Halide complex formation and anion exchange into triisooctyl amine. Radiochim Acta 48:121

Lawrence EO, Livingston MS (1931) The production of high-speed protons without the use of high voltages. Phys Rev 38:834

Lebowitz E, Greene MW, Fairchild R et al (1975) Thallium-201 for medical use. J Nucl Med 16:151

Libby WF (1946) Atmospheric helium three and radiocarbon from cosmic radiation. Phys Rev 69:671

Libby WF (1952) Radiocarbon dating. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

Litherland AE (1980) Ultrasensitive mass spectrometry with accelerators. Ann Rev Nucl Part Sci 30:437

Livingston MS, Blewett JP (1962) Particle accelerators. McGraw-Hill, New York

Marckwald W (1903) Über den radioaktiven Bestandtheil des Wismuths aus Joachimsthaler Pechblende. Ber Dtsch Chem Ges 36:2662

Marinsky JA, Glendenin LE, Coryell CD (1947) The chemical identification of radioisotopes of neodymium and of element 61. J Am Chem Soc 69:2781

Maurette M (1976) Fossil nuclear reactors. Ann Rev Nucl Sci 26:319

Mayer MG (1950) Nuclear configurations in the spin-orbit coupling model I, Empirical evidence. Phys Rev 78:16; II, Theoretical considerations. Phys Rev 78:22

McMillan E (1939) Recoils from uranium activated by neutrons. Phys Rev 55:510

McMillan E, Abelson PH (1940) Radioactive element 93. Phys Rev 57:1185

Meitner L, Frisch OR (1939) Disintegration of uranium by neutrons. A new type of nuclear reaction. Nature 143:239

Meitner L, Hahn O, Strassmann F (1937) Über die Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden. Z Phys 106:249

Meldner H (1966) Predictions of new magic regions and masses for super-heavy nuclei from calculations with realistic shell model single particle Hamiltonians. In: Forsling W, Herrlander CJ, Ryde H (eds) Nuclides far off the stability line, Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm, pp 593–601; also Arkiv Fysik 36:593

Metropolis N, Bivins R, Storm M et al (1958a) Monte Carlo calculations on intranuclear cascades I, Low-energy studies. Phys Rev 110:185

Metropolis N, Bivins R, Storm M et al (1958b) Monte Carlo calculations on intranuclear cascades II, High energy studies and pion processes. Phys Rev 110:204

Meyer St, Hess VF, Paneth F (1914) Neue Reichweitenbestimmungen an Polonium, Ionium und Actiniumpräparaten. Sitzungsber Akad Wiss Wien, Math-naturw Kl IIa 123:1459

Meyer St, Schweidler ER von (1916, 1927) Radioaktivität, 1st and 2nd edn. B. G. Teubner, Leipzig.

Molinski VI (1982) A review of ^99mTc generator technology. Int J Appl Radiat Isot 33:811

Moseley HGJ (1913, 1914) The high-frequency spectra of the elements I. Phil Mag 26:1024; II Phil Mag 27:703

Mössbauer RL (1958) Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von Gammastrahlung in ¹⁹¹Ir. Z Phys 151:124

Mössbauer RL (1962) Recoilless nuclear resonance absorption. Ann Rev Nucl Sci 12:123

Mueller AC, Sherrill BM (1993) Nuclei at the limits of particle stability. Ann Rev Nucl Part Sci 43:529

Münzenberg G, Hofmann S, Hessberger FP et al (1981) Identification of element 107 by correlation chains. Z Phys A 300:107

Münzenberg G, Armbruster P, Hessberger FP et al (1982) Observation of one correlated α-decay in the reaction ⁵⁸Fe on ²⁰⁹Bi → ²⁶⁷109. Z Phys A 309:89

Myers WD, Swiatecki WJ (1966) Nuclear masses and deformations. Nucl Phys 81:1

Neuilly M, Bussac J, Frèjaques C et al (1972) Sur l’existence dans un passé reculé d’une réaction en chaine naturelle de fissions, dans le gisement d’uranium d’Oklo (Gabon). Compt Rend D 275:1847

Nier AO (1935) Evidence for the existence of an isotope of potassium of mass 40. Phys Rev 48:283

Nier AO (1938) Variations in the relative abundances of the isotopes of common lead from various sources. J Am Chem Soc 60:1571

Nier AO, Booth ET, Dunning JR et al (1940) Nuclear fission of separated uranium isotopes. Phys Rev 57:546, 748

Nilsson SG (1955) Binding states of individual nucleons in strongly deformed nuclei. Danske Vidensk Selsk Mat-fys Medd 29, No. 16

Nilsson SG, Thompson SG, Tsang CF (1969) Stability of superheavy nuclei and their possible occurrence in nature. Phys Lett B 28:458

Oganessian YuTs, Iljinov A, Demin AG et al (1975) Experiments on the production of fermium neutron-deficient isotopes and new possibilities of synthesizing elements with Z b 100. Nucl Phys A 239:353

Oganessian YuTs, Utyonkov VK, Lobanov YuV et al (2000a) Synthesis of superheavy nuclei in the ⁴⁸Ca + ²⁴⁴Pu reaction: ²⁸⁸114. Phys Rev C 62:041604

Oganessian YuTs, Utyonkov VK, Lobanov YuV et al (2000b) Observation of the decay of ²⁹²116. Phys Rev C 63:011301

Oppenheimer JR, Phillips M (1935) Note on the transmutation function for deuterons. Phys Rev 48:599

Otten EW (1989) Nuclear radii and moments of unstable isotopes. In: Bromley DA (ed) Treatise on heavy-ion science, vol 8. Plenum, New York, pp 517–638

Paneth FA, Reasbeck P, Mayne KI (1953) Production by cosmic rays of helium-3 in meteorites. Nature 172:200

Patterson C (1956) Age of meteorites and the Earth. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 10:230

Pauli W (1994) On the earlier and more recent history of the neutrino. In: Pauli W (ed) Writings on physics and philosophy (English trans: Enz CP, von Meyenn K). Springer, Berlin, pp 193–217

Perey M (1939a) Sur un élément 87, dérivé de l’actinium. Compt Rend 208:97

Perey M (1939b) L’élément 87: AcK, dérivé de l’actinium. J Phys Radium 10:435

Perrier C, Segrè E (1937a) Radioactive isotopes of element 43. Nature 140:193

Perrier C, Segrè E (1937b) Some chemical properties of element 43. J Chem Phys 5:712

Perrin J (1919) Matière et lumière, Essai de synthèse de la méchanique chimique #49: L’évolution des astres. Ann Physique 11:89

Petrzhak KA, Flerov GN (1940) Über die spontane Teilung von Uran. Compt Rend Acad Sci URSS 28:500

Piggott CS (1936) Apparatus to secure core samples from the ocean bottom. Bull Geol Soc Am 47:675

Pitzer KS (1975) Are elements 112, 114, and 118 relatively inert gases? J Chem Phys 63:1032

Polikanov SM, Druin VA, Karnaukhov VA et al (1962) Spontaneous fission with an anomalously short period. Sov Phys JETP 15:1016; J Exptl Theor Phys USSR 42:1464

Pontecorvo B (1935) Sulle proprietà dei neutroni lenti. Nuovo Cimento 12:211

Price WJ (1958, 1964) Nuclear radiation detection, 1st and 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York

PUAE (1956) Proceedings of the international conference on the peaceful uses of atomic energy, vols 1–17. United Nations, New York

Ravn HL (1979) Experiments with intense secondary beams of radioactive ions. Phys Rep 54:201

Reines F, Cowan CL (1953) Detection of the free neutrino. Phys Rev 92:830

Reines F, Cowan CL, Harrison FB et al (1960) Detection of the free antineutrino. Phys Rev 117:159

Rhodes R (1986) The making of the atomic bomb. Simon & Schuster, New York

Richards P, Tucker WD, Srivastava SC (1982) Technetium-99m: an historical perspective. Int J Appl Radiat Isot 33:793

Richards TW, Lembert ME (1914) The atomic weight of lead of radioactive origin. J Am Chem Soc 36:1309

Rieder W, Broda E, Erber J (1950) Dissoziation von Permanganationen durch lokale Energiezufuhr. Monatsh Chem 81:656

Roberts RB, Hafstad LR, Meyer RC et al (1939) The delayed neutron emission which accompanies fission of uranium and thorium. Phys Rev 55:664

Rose HJ, Jones GA (1984) A new kind of natural radioactivity. Nature 307:245

Rosenblum S (1930) Structure fine du spectre magnétique des rayons α. Compt Rend 190:1124

Ruben S, Kamen MD (1940a) Radioactive carbon of long half-life. Phys Rev 57:549

Ruben S, Kamen MD (1940b) Photosynthesis with radioactive carbon IV, Molecular weight of the intermediate products and a tentative theory of photosynthesis. J Am Chem Soc 62:3451

Ruben S, Kamen MD (1941) Long-lived radioactive carbon: C¹⁴. Phys Rev 59:349

Ruben S, Kamen M, Hassid WZ (1940) Photosynthesis with radioactive carbon II, Chemical properties of the intermediates. J Am Chem Soc 62:3443

Rutherford E (1900) A radio-active substance emitted from thorium compounds. Phil Mag 49:1

Rutherford E (1906) The mass and velocity of the α particles expelled from radium and actinium. Phil Mag 12:348

Rutherford E (1911) The scattering of α and β particles by matter and the structure of the atom. Phil Mag 21:669

Rutherford E (1919) Collision of α particles with light atoms IV, An anomalous effect in nitrogen. Phil Mag 37:581

Rutherford E, Soddy F (1902) The cause and nature of radioactivity I, II. Phil Mag 4:370, 569

Rutherford E, Soddy F (1903) Radioactive change. Phil Mag 5:576

Schädel M, Brüchle W, Dressler R et al (1997) Chemical properties of element 106 (seaborgium). Nature 388:55

Schaeffer OA (1968) Nuclear chemistry of the earth and meteorites. In: Yaffe L (ed) Nuclear chemistry, vol 2. Academic, New York, pp 371–393

Schaeffer OA, Zähringer J (1966) Potassium-argon dating. Springer, Berlin

Schroeder WU, Huizenga JR (1977) Damped heavy-ion collisions. Ann Rev Nucl Sci 27:465

Seaborg GT (1940) Artificial radioactivity. Chem Revs 27:199

Seaborg GT (1945) The chemical and radioactive properties of the heavy elements. Chem Eng News 23:2190

Seaborg GT (1954) Coordination of properties as actinide transition series. In: Seaborg GT, Katz JJ (eds) The actinide elements. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 733–768

Seaborg GT, Katz JJ (eds) (1954) The actinide elements. McGraw-Hill, New York

Seaborg GT, Wahl AC (1948) The chemical properties of elements 94 and 93. J Am Chem Soc 70:1128

Seaborg GT, McMillan EM, Kennedy JW, Wahl AC (1946a) Radioactive element 94 from deuterons on uranium. Phys Rev 69:366

Seaborg GT, Wahl AC, Kennedy JW (1946b) Radioactive element 94 from deuterons on uranium. Phys Rev 69:367

Seaborg GT, James RA, Morgan LO (1949a) The new element americium (atomic number 95). In: Seaborg GT, Katz JJ, Manning WM (eds) The transuranium elements, research papers II. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 1525–1553

Seaborg GT, James RA, Ghiorso A (1949b) The new element curium (atomic number 96). In: Seaborg GT, Katz JJ, Manning WM (eds) The transuranium elements, research papers II. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 1554–1571

Seelmann-Eggebert W, Strassmann F (1947) Über die bei der Uranspaltung noch zu erwartenden Bruchstücke. Z Naturforsch 2a:80

Segrè E, Halford RS, Seaborg GT (1939) Chemical separation of nuclear isomers. Phys Rev 55:321

Serber R (1947) Nuclear reactions at high energies. Phys Rev 72:1114

Siegel JM (1946) Nuclei formed in fission: decay characteristics, fission yields, and chain relationships. J Am Chem Soc 68:2411

Silva RJ (1986) Transeinsteinium elements. In: Katz JJ, Seaborg GT, Morss LR (eds) The chemistry of the actinide elements, 2nd edn. Chapman & Hall, London, pp 1085–1115

Sklodowska Curie M (1898) Rayons émis par les composés de l’uranium et du thorium. Compt Rend 126:1101

Sobiczewski A, Gareev FA, Kalinkin BN (1966) Closed shells for Z b 82 and N b 128 in a diffuse potential well. Phys Lett B 22:500

Soddy F (1911) Radioactivity. Ann Rep Progr Chem 7:285

Soddy F (1913a) Intra-atomic charge. Nature 92:400

Soddy F (1913b) The radio-elements and the periodic law. Chem News 107:97

Soddy F (1975) In: Trenn TT (ed) Radioactivity and atomic theory: facsimile reproduction of the annual progress reports on radioactivity 1904–1920 to the chemical society by Frederick Soddy F.R.S. Taylor & Francis, London

Stöcklin G, Pike VW (eds) (1993) Radiopharmaceuticals for positron emission tomography: methodological aspects. Kluwer, Dordrecht

Strassmann F, Hahn O (1942) Über die Isolierung und einige Eigenschaften des Elements 93. Naturwiss 30:256

Strutinsky VM (1967) Shell effects in nuclear masses and deformation energies. Nucl Phys A 95:420

Suess HE, Urey HC (1956) Abundances of the elements. Rev Mod Phys 28:53

Szilard L, Chalmers TA (1934) Chemical separation of the radioactive element from its bombarded isotope in the Fermi effect. Nature 134:462

Tanihata I, Hamagaki H, Hashimoto O et al (1985) Measurements of interaction cross sections and nuclear radii in the light p-shell region. Phys Rev Lett 55:2676

Thompson SG, Ghiorso A, Seaborg GT (1950a) Element 97. Phys Rev 77:838

Thompson SG, Street K Jr, Ghiorso A, Seaborg GT (1950b) Element 98. Phys Rev 78:298

Thomson JJ (1913) Positive rays of electricity. Nature 91:362

Urey HC, Brickwedde FG, Murphy GM (1932) Hydrogen isotope of mass 2 and its concentration. Phys Rev 40:1

Van de Graaff RJ, Compton KT, Van Atta LC (1933) Electrostatic production of high voltage. Phys Rev 43:149

von Gunten HR (1969) Distribution of mass in spontaneous and neutron-induced fission. Actinide Revs 1(4):275

Wahl AC, Bonner NA (1951) Radioactivity applied to chemistry. Wiley, New York

Watters RL, Hakonson TE, Lane LJ (1983) The behavior of actinides in the environments. Radiochim Acta 32:89

Weizsäcker CF von (1935) Zur Theorie der Kernmassen. Z Phys 96:431

Weizsäcker CF von (1937) Über die Möglichkeit eines dualen β-Zerfalls von Kalium. Physik Z 38:623

Wetherill GW (1971) Of time and the Moon. Science 173:383

Wetherill GW (1975) Radiometric chronology of the early solar system. Ann Rev Nucl Sci 25:283

Wilczynski J, Volkov VV, Decowski P (1967) Some features of the mechanism of many-neutron-transfer reactions. Sov J Nucl Phys 5:672; Yad Fiz 5:942

Wilkins BD, Steinberg EP, Chasman RR (1976) Scission-point model of nuclear fission based on deformed-shell effects. Phys Rev C 14:1832

Wilkinson DH, Wapstra AH, Ulehla I et al (1993) Discovery of the transfermium elements, Report of the Transfermium Working Group of IUPAC and IUPAP II, Introduction to discovery profiles, III, Discovery profiles of the transfermium elements. Pure Appl Chem 65:1757, 1764

Willard JE (1953) Chemical effects of nuclear transformations. Ann Rev Nucl Sci 3:193

Wolf AP (1960) Labeling of organic compounds by recoil methods. Ann Rev Nucl Sci 10:259

Wolf AP (1964) The reactions of energetic tritium and carbon atoms with organic compounds. Adv Phys Organ Chem 2:201

Wolf AP, Redvanly CS (1977) Carbon-11 and radiopharmaceuticals. Int J Appl Radiat Isot 28:29

Yalow RS (1978) Radioimmunoassay: A probe for the fine structure of biologic systems. Science 200:1236

Yankwich PE, Rollefson GK, Norris TH (1946) Chemical forms assumed by C¹⁴ produced by neutron irradiation of nitrogenous substances. J Chem Phys 14:13

Zvara I, Belov VZ, Domanov VP et al (1971) Chemical isolation of kurchatovium. Sov Radiochem 14:115; Radiokhimia 14:119

Title: Nuclear and Radiochemistry: the First 100 Years
Authors: G. Friedlander
G. Herrmann
Publisher: Springer US
Book: Handbook of Nuclear Chemistry
Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-0719-6

Electronic ISBN: 978-1-4419-0720-2

Copyright Year: 2011
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0720-2_1